Table 2.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of general psychopathology.
| Authors (year) | Sample | Age | N | Psychopathology measure | Modality | Neuroimaging measure of interest | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sato et al. (2016) | HCP | 6–12 | 654 | p-factor from bifactor model | rs-fMRI | fALFF | Increased p is associated with delayed maturation of the DMN. |
| Shanmugan et al. (2016) | PNC | 8–21 | 1129 | p-factor from bifactor model | fMRI (n-back) | BOLD signal | Increased p is associated with a disturbed pattern of executive system recruitment, including hypoactivation of frontal pole, ACC, anterior insula, thalamus, and precuneus. |
| Kaufmann et al. (2017) | PNC | 8–22 | 797 | general psychopathology factor from PCA | fMRI (n-back, emotion recognition), rs-fMRI | BOLD signal | Increased general psychopathology is associated with decreased connectome distinctiveness, and a decreased rate of maturation thereof. |
| Elliott et al. (2018) | DNS | 18–22 | 605 | p-factor from bifactor model | rs-fMRI | BOLD signal | Increased p is associated with decreased connectivity between visual and somatosensory regions, but hyperconnectivity between visual association cortex and DMN as well as heteromodal fronto-parietal network |
| Kaczkurkin et al. (2018) | PNC | 11–23 | 1042 | p-factor from bifactor model | ASL | CBF | Increased p is associated with increased CBF in ACC, postcentral gyrus, parahippocampal cortex and midbrain; and with reduced connectivity between dorsal ACC and bilateral caudate. |
| Xia et al. (2018) | PNC | 8–22 | 1600 | Shared patterns across four symptom dimensions based on CCA | rs-fMRI | BOLD signal | Within-network dysconnectivity of the DMN and fronto-parietal network, as well as reduced segregation between DMN and executive networks (salience and fronto-parietal), is shared across all symptom dimensions. |
| Kebets et al. (2019) | CNP | 21–50 | 272 | general psychopathology factor from PLS | rs-fMRI | BOLD signal | Increased general psychopathology component (and cognitive dysfunction and impulsivity components) is associated with somatomotor dysconnectivity. |
| Barber et al. (2019) | PNC/PING | 8–23 / 9–21 | 926 | general psychopathology factor from PCA | rs-fMRI | BOLD signal | Increased general psychopathology is associated with developmentally delayed intrastriatal functional connectivity; and with accelerated connectivity between the putamen and insula, globus pallidus, thalamus and anterior temporal pole as well as accelerated connectivity between caudate and mPFC/OFC. |
Abbreviations: HCP = Human Connectome Project. PNC = Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort. DNS = Duke Neurogenetics Study. CNP = Consortium for Neuropsychiatric Phenomics. PING = Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics. rs-fMRI = Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. fALFF = Fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations. DMN = Default mode network. BOLD = Blood oxygen level dependent. ACC = Anterior cingulate cortex. ASL = Arterial spin labelling. CBF = Cerebral blood flow. CCA = Canonical correlation analysis. PLS = Partial least squares. PCA = Principal component analysis.