Table 2.
Survey statements about stress and memory with percentage of participant endorsement
| Statement | Shorthand | Percentage of participant endorsement | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eyewitness memory experts n = 37 |
Fundamental memory experts n = 36 |
Laypeople n = 109 |
|||
| 1. Very high levels of stress impair the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. | high stress impairs | Agree | 94.6 (87.3, 100.0) | 80.6 (67.7, 93.5) | 93.6 (89.0, 98.2) |
| Disagree | 2.7 (0.0, 7.9) | 16.7 (4.5, 28.9) | 3.7 (0.2, 7.2) | ||
| Don’t know | 2.7 (0.0, 7.9) | 2.8 (0.0, 8.2) | 2.8 (0.0, 5.9) | ||
| 2. If an eyewitness is stressed during a police interview (i.e., at retrieval), his or her memory will be less accurate than if he or she were not stressed. | police interview | Agree | 81.1 (68.5, 93.7) | 75.0 (60.9, 89.1) | 81.7 (74.4, 89.0) |
| Disagree | 8.1 (0.0, 16.9) | 13.9 (2.6, 25.2) | 12.8 (6.5, 19.1) | ||
| Don’t know | 10.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 11.1 (0.8, 21.4) | 5.5 (1.2, 9.8) | ||
| 3. Experiencing stress while trying to remember something (i.e., at retrieval) impairs memory retrieval. | stress impairs retrieval | Agree | 86.5 (75.5, 97.5) | 91.7 (82.7, 100.0) | 78.0 (70.2, 85.8) |
| Disagree | 2.7 (0.0, 7.9) | 8.3 (0.0, 17.3) | 12.8 (6.5, 19.1) | ||
| Don’t know | 10.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 0.0 | 9.2 (3.8, 14.6) | ||
| 4. Experiencing stress during an event (i.e., at encoding) enhances memory for that event. | stress enhances encoding | Agree | 32.4 (17.3, 47.5) | 77.8 (64.2, 91.4) | 33.9 (25.0, 42.8) |
| Disagree | 62.2 (46.6, 77.8) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.2) | 53.2 (43.8, 62.6) | ||
| Don’t know | 5.4 (0.0, 12.7) | 2.8 (0.0, 8.2) | 12.8 (6.5, 19.1) | ||
| 5. Children’s memories are less affected by stress experienced during an event (i.e., at encoding) than adults’ memories. | children less affected | Agree | 5.4 (0.0, 12.7) | 2.8 (0.0, 8.2) | 27.5 (19.1, 35.9) |
| Disagree | 73.0 (58.7, 87.3) | 55.6 (39.4, 71.8) | 56.9 (47.6, 66.2) | ||
| Don’t know | 21.6 (8.3, 34.9) | 41.7 (25.6, 57.8) | 15.6 (8.8, 22.4) | ||
| 6. Stress experienced during an event (i.e., at encoding) enhances memory for central details of the event, but not for peripheral details. | detail type | Agree | 78.4 (65.1, 91.7) | 80.6 (67.7, 93.5) | 45.0 (35.7, 54.3) |
| Disagree | 10.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 16.7 (4.5, 28.9) | 35.8 (26.8, 44.8) | ||
| Don’t know | 10.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 2.8 (0.0, 8.2) | 19.3 (11.9, 26.7) | ||
| 7. When an eyewitness is stressed while trying to remember something (i.e., at retrieval), his or her free recall ability is more negatively affected by this stress than his or her recognition ability. | test type | Agree | 56.8 (40.8, 72.8) | 72.2 (57.6, 86.8) | 75.2 (67.1, 83.3) |
| Disagree | 18.9 (6.3, 31.5) | 8.3 (0.0, 17.3) | 10.1 (4.4, 15.8) | ||
| Don’t know | 24.3 (10.5, 38.1) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.3) | 14.7 (8.1, 21.3) | ||
| 8. Stress affects memory for faces differently than memory for other types of stimuli. | faces affected differently | Agree | 37.8 (22.2, 53.4) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.3) | 64.2 (55.2, 73.2) |
| Disagree | 32.4 (17.3, 47.5) | 38.9 (23.0, 54.8) | 11.9 (5.8, 18.0) | ||
| Don’t know | 29.7 (15.0, 44.4) | 41.7 (25.6, 57.8) | 23.9 (15.9, 31.9) | ||
| 9. The memory of trained professionals, such a police officers, will be less affected by stress than the memory of normal eyewitnesses. | professionals less affected | Agree | 13.5 (2.5, 24.5) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.3) | 64.2 (55.2, 73.2) |
| Disagree | 86.5 (75.5, 97.5) | 72.2 (57.6, 86.8) | 29.4 (20.8, 38.0) | ||
| Don’t know | 0.0 | 8.3 (0.0, 17.3) | 6.4 (1.8, 11.0) | ||
| 10. A victim’s memory will typically be more affected by stress experienced during a crime (i.e., at encoding) than a bystander eyewitness’ memory. | victims more affected | Agree | 75.7 (61.9, 89.5) | 58.3 (42.2, 74.4) | 78.9 (71.2, 86.6) |
| Disagree | 18.9 (6.3, 31.5) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.3) | 12.8 (6.5, 19.1) | ||
| Don’t know | 5.4 (0.0, 12.7) | 22.2 (8.6, 35.8) | 8.3 (3.1, 13.5) | ||
| 11. Eyewitnesses who experience stress during a crime are more likely to have memories that they unconsciously blocked due to trauma (i.e., “repressed memories”) than those who do not experience such stress. | repression | Agree | 16.2 (4.3, 28.1) | 13.9 (2.6, 25.2) | 85.3 (78.7, 91.9) |
| Disagree | 75.7 (61.9, 89.5) | 69.4 (54.3, 84.5) | 7.3 (2.4, 12.2) | ||
| Don’t know | 8.1 (0.0, 16.9) | 16.7 (4.5, 28.9) | 7.3 (2.4, 12.2) | ||
| 12. Eyewitnesses have more difficulty remembering violent events than nonviolent ones. | violent events | Agree | 40.5 (24.7, 56.3) | 13.9 (2.6, 25.2) | 44.0 (34.7, 53.3) |
| Disagree | 54.1 (38.0, 70.2) | 55.6 (39.4, 71.8) | 36.7 (27.7, 45.7) | ||
| Don’t know | 5.4 (0.0, 12.7) | 30.6 (15.5, 45.7) | 19.3 (11.9, 26.7) | ||
| 13. Stressful experiences that are emotional are generally better remembered than stressful experiences that are not emotional. | emotional better remembered | Agree | 62.2 (46.6, 77.8) | 61.1 (45.2, 77.0) | 52.3 (42.9, 61.7) |
| Disagree | 18.9 (6.3, 31.5) | 22.2 (8.6, 35.8) | 29.4 (20.8, 38.0) | ||
| Don’t know | 18.9 (6.3, 31.5) | 16.7 (4.5, 28.9) | 18.3 (11.0, 25.6) | ||
| 14. Eyewitnesses who experience moderate levels of stress during a crime (i.e., at encoding) display better memory than eyewitnesses who experience low levels of stress during a crime. | moderate stress | Agree | 62.2 (46.6, 77.8) | 69.4 (54.3, 84.5) | 35.8 (26.8, 44.8) |
| Disagree | 18.9 (6.3, 31.5) | 16.7 (4.5, 28.9) | 50.5 (41.1, 59.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 18.9 (6.3, 31.5) | 13.9 (2.6, 25.2) | 13.8 (7.3, 20.3) | ||
| 15. Severe levels of stress, but not moderate levels of stress, generally harm eyewitness memory. | severe stress | Agree | 83.8 (71.9, 95.7) | 63.9 (48.2, 79.6) | 63.3 (54.3, 72.3) |
| Disagree | 16.2 (4.3, 28.1) | 22.2 (8.6, 35.8) | 23.9 (15.9, 31.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 0.0 | 13.9 (2.6, 25.2) | 12.8 (6.5, 19.1) | ||
| 16. When an eyewitness experiences a relatively short crime (i.e., fewer than 5 minutes), his or her memories are not affected by this stress. | short crime | Agree | 2.7 (0.0, 7.9) | 0.0 | 26.6 (18.3, 34.9) |
| Disagree | 91.9 (83.1, 100.0) | 91.7 (82.7, 100.0) | 54.1 (44.7, 63.5) | ||
| Don’t know | 5.4 (0.0, 12.7) | 8.3 (0.0, 17.3) | 19.3 (11.9, 26.7) | ||
| 17. If one experiences stress during an event (i.e., at encoding), it is likely that his or her memories will be more abstract and general rather than specific and detailed. | abstractness | Agree | 37.8 (22.2, 53.4) | 41.7 (25.6, 57.8) | 57.8 (48.5, 67.1) |
| Disagree | 35.1 (19.7, 50.5) | 52.8 (36.5, 69.1) | 24.8 (16.7, 32.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 27.0 (12.7, 41.3) | 5.6 (0.0, 13.1) | 17.4 (10.3, 24.5) | ||
| 18. If memory is immediately tested after a stressor, one does not experience a memory deficit; rather, memory at this stage can actually be enhanced. | immediate retrieval enhances | Agree | 29.7 (15.0, 44.4) | 22.2 (8.6, 35.8) | 46.8 (37.4, 56.2) |
| Disagree | 37.8 (22.2, 53.4) | 41.7 (25.6, 57.8) | 31.2 (22.5, 39.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 32.4 (17.3, 47.5) | 36.1 (20.4, 51.8) | 22.0 (14.2, 29.8) | ||
| 19. Memory tested two hours after a stressor is experienced will be worse than memory tested 30 minutes after a stressor is experienced. | retrieval timing | Agree | 62.2 (46.6, 77.8) | 30.6 (15.5, 45.7) | 57.8 (48.5, 67.1) |
| Disagree | 16.2 (4.3, 28.1) | 44.4 (28.2, 60.6) | 23.9 (15.9, 31.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 21.6 (8.3, 34.9) | 25.0 (10.9, 39.1) | 18.3 (11.0, 25.6) | ||
| 20. Stress that occurs before the presentation of incorrect information can protect an eyewitness’ original memory because stress prevents new information from being incorporated into existing memory. | misinformation protection | Agree | 10.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.3) | 45.9 (36.5, 55.3) |
| Disagree | 43.2 (27.2, 59.2) | 69.4 (54.3, 84.5) | 30.3 (21.7, 38.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 45.9 (29.8, 62.0) | 11.1 (0.8, 21.4) | 23.9 (15.9, 31.9) | ||
| 21. Memories of older adults (ages 55+) are less affected by stress experienced during an event (i.e., at encoding) than memories of younger adults (ages 18–35). | older adults less affected | Agree | 5.4 (0.0, 12.7) | 8.3 (0.0, 17.3) | 22.0 (14.2, 29.8) |
| Disagree | 43.2 (27.2, 59.2) | 47.2 (30.9, 63.5) | 58.7 (49.5, 67.9) | ||
| Don’t know | 51.4 (35.3, 67.5) | 44.4 (28.2, 60.6) | 19.3 (11.9, 26.7) | ||
| 22. Effects of stress on memory are driven primarily by autonomic nervous system activity.* | primarily ANS activity | Agree | 37.8 (22.2, 53.4) | 27.8 (13.2, 42.4) | |
| Disagree | 13.5 (2.5, 24.5) | 58.3 (42.2, 74.4) | |||
| Don’t know | 48.6 (32.5, 64.7) | 13.9 (2.6, 25.2) | |||
| 23. Encoding is facilitated when the autonomic nervous system is activated while experiencing an emotional event such as a crime.* | ANS facilitates | Agree | 48.6 (32.5, 64.7) | 94.4 (86.9, 100.0) | |
| Disagree | 13.5 (2.5, 24.5) | 2.8 (0.0, 8.2) | |||
| Don’t know | 37.8 (22.2, 53.4) | 2.8 (0.0, 8.2) | |||
| 24. Rapid nongenomic glucocorticoids have a beneficial effect on memory formation for an event such as a crime.* | rapid cortisol is beneficial | Agree | 13.5 (2.5, 24.5) | 52.8 (36.5, 69.1) | |
| Disagree | 2.7 (0.0, 7.9) | 11.1 (0.8, 21.4) | |||
| Don’t know | 83.8 (71.9, 95.7) | 36.1 (20.4, 51.8) | |||
| 25. Slow genomic glucocorticoids have a detrimental effect on memory formation for an event such as a crime.* | slow cortisol is detrimental | Agree | 13.5 (2.5, 24.5) | 27.8 (13.2, 42.4) | |
| Disagree | 2.7 (0.0, 7.9) | 30.6 (15.5, 45.7) | |||
| Don’t know | 83.8 (71.9, 95.7) | 41.7 (25.6, 57.8) | |||
| 26. At encoding, noradrenergic stimulation alone can be sufficient for enhancing the connectivity and excitability within brain networks related to memory.* | noradrenergic alone | Agree | 21.6 (8.3, 34.9) | 41.7 (25.6, 57.8) | |
| Disagree | 10.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 19.4 (6.5, 32.3) | |||
| Don’t know | 73.0 (58.7, 87.3) | 38.9 (23.0, 54.8) | |||
| 27. At encoding, glucocorticoid actions alone can be sufficient for enhancing the connectivity and excitability within brain networks related to memory.* | glucocorticoid alone | Agree | 16.2 (4.3, 28.1) | 30.6 (15.5, 45.7) | |
| Disagree | 0.8 (0.8, 20.8) | 36.1 (20.4, 51.8) | |||
| Don’t know | 73.0 (58.7, 87.3) | 33.3 (17.9, 48.7) | |||
| 28. To observe the effects of stress during encoding on memory, both the autonomic nervous system and the HPA axis must be activated at the same time.* | HPA & ANS activated | Agree | 16.2 (4.3, 28.1) | 27.8 (13.2, 42.4) | |
| Disagree | 8.1 (0.0, 16.9) | 36.1 (20.4, 51.8) | |||
| Don’t know | 75.7 (61.9, 89.5) | 36.1 (20.4, 51.8) | |||
| 29. When noradrenergic arousal interacts with nongenomic glucocorticoids during retrieval, memory is typically impaired.* | HPA & ANS retrieval | Agree | 13.5 (2.5, 24.5) | 44.4 (28.2, 60.6) | |
| Disagree | 0.0 | 11.1 (0.8, 21.4) | |||
| Don’t know | 86.5 (75.5, 97.5) | 44.4 (28.2, 60.6) | |||
Note. * = statement presented only to expert sample. Agree = somewhat agree + strongly agree. Disagree = somewhat disagree + strongly disagree. Numbers in parentheses = 95% CIs (lower, upper)