Table 1.

Various three-dimensional cell culture techniques with their pros and cons

Cell culture technique	Pros	Cons
Spheroids	Easy handling and user-friendly	Unable to mimic complex architecture
	Easy to transfer to different plates for subculture and for further studies
	HTS can be performed
	Can be co-cultured
	Can be reproduced easily
Organoids and organ-on-a-chip	Specific for disease and patient	Can be variable
	Mimics in vivo complexity and cellular architecture	Less susceptible for HTS
	Can provide in vivo like microenvironment	Difficult to achieve in vivo maturity
	Also provides chemical and physical gradients
Scaffolds/hydrogels	Can be done on microplates	Simple architecture
	HTS can be performed	Can be greatly variable
	Can be easily reproduced
	Can be co-cultured
3D printing	Custom-made features and architecture	Deficiency of vasculature
	Mimics chemical and physical gradients	Difficulty in procurement of raw materials for printing
	Can be easily produced on a large scale	Less susceptible to HTS
	Co-culture can be performed	Tissue maturity levels cannot be studied

HTS=High-throughput screening, 3D=Three dimensional