TABLE 1.
Comparison of baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of study participants according to disease status
| Characteristic |
Hypertension (HPT) N = 1867 |
Hypertension and diabetes mellitus N = 1006 |
P‐value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, mean ± SD | 58.0 ± 13.0 | 60.0 ± 10.8 | <.0001 |
| Female, n (%) | 1434 (76.9) | 778 (77.4) | .77 |
| Location of residence | |||
| Urban | 635 (34.1) | 564 (56.1) | <.0001 |
| Semi‐urban | 384 (20.6) | 247 (24.6) | |
| Rural | 843 (45.3) | 195 (19.4) | |
| Highest educational status | |||
| No formal education | 743 (39.8) | 361 (36.0) | .19 |
| Primary level | 294 (15.7) | 172 (17.1) | |
| Secondary level | 627 (33.6) | 347 (34.6) | |
| Tertiary level or more | 203 (10.9) | 124 (12.4) | |
| Monthly household income | |||
| >1000 Ghana cedis (GHc) | 127 (9.2) | 87 (12.6) | .0004 |
| 500‐1000 GHc | 153 (11.1) | 109 (15.8) | |
| 300‐500 GHc | 203 (14.8) | 111 (16.1) | |
| 210‐300 GHc | 120 (8.7) | 57 (8.3) | |
| <210 GHc | 773 (56.2) | 325 (47.2) | |
| Level of health institution | |||
| Tertiary referral level | 765 (41.0) | 781 (77.6) | .0001 |
| Secondary/district level | 936 (50.1) | 217 (21.6) | |
| Primary level | 166 (8.9) | 8 (0.8) | |
| Vascular risk factors | |||
| Duration of hypertension, (y) | 7.2 ± 7.2 | 9.1 ± 7.2 | <.0001 |
| Duration of diabetes mellitus, mean ± SD (y) | NA | 9.8 ± 7.2 | NA |
| Systolic blood pressure at enrollment (mm Hg), mean ± SD | 142.5 ± 21.3 | 145.3 ± 22.7 | .001 |
| Diastolic blood pressure at enrollment (mm Hg), mean ± SD | 83.2 ± 13.1 | 81.8 ± 12.5 | .005 |
| Medical co‐morbidities | |||
| Previous stroke diagnosis | 84 (4.5) | 70 (7.0) | .005 |
| Previous heart failure diagnosis | 121 (6.5) | 51(5.1) | .13 |
| Lifestyle/Behavioral factors | |||
| Current alcohol use | 160 (8.6) | 60 (6.0) | .01 |
| Current cigarette smoking | 9 (0.48) | 5 (0.50) | .96 |
| Previous cigarette smoking | 111 (5.9) | 86 (8.5) | .008 |
| Fruit consumption | |||
| Daily intake of fruits in a week, mean ± SD | 2.54 ± 2.01 | 2.61 ± 2.01 | .41 |
| Fruit servings per day, mean ± SD | 1.64 ± 1.68 | 1.69 ± 1.33 | .42 |
| Vegetable consumption | |||
| Daily intake of vegetables in a week, mean ± SD | 5.00 ± 2.20 | 4.86 ± 2.11 | .10 |
| Vegetable servings per day, mean ± SD | 2.19 ± 1.60 | 2.28 ± 1.50 | .15 |
| Added salt at table | |||
| Never | 1491 (79.9) | 866 (86.1) | <.0001 |
| Rarely | 157 (8.4) | 42 (4.2) | |
| Occasionally | 117 (6.3) | 54 (5.3) | |
| Very often | 101 (5.4) | 44 (4.4) | |
| Regular physical activity | |||
| Participants engaged in physical activities daily | 1,092 (58.5) | 640 (61.5) | .008 |
| Duration of time spent on physical activities in minutes, mean ± SD | 18.2 ± 23.0 | 20.5 ± 23.9 | .01 |
| >60 min | 141 (7.6) | 88 (8.7) | .07 |
| 20‐59 min | 723 (38.7) | 422 (41.9) | |
| <20 min | 1,003 (53.7) | 496 (49.3) | |
| Anthropometric indicators | |||
| Waist circumference, mean ± SD | 95.0 ± 13.2 | 98.2 ± 12.6 | <.0001 |
| Waist circumference elevated, n (%) | 1,075 (57.9) | 704 (70.1) | <.0001 |
| Body mass index, mean ± SD | 26.9 ± 5.9 | 26.7 ± 5.2 | .42 |
| Health expenditure indicators | |||
| Monthly expenditure on medicines, mean ± SD (cedis) | 34.1 ± 46.7 | 67.1 ± 81.9 | <.0001 |
| Travel cost to hospital, mean ± SD (cedis) | 7.2 ± 12.7 | 9.2 ± 20.2 | .001 |
| Dependents on monthly household income, mean ± SD (cedis) | 5.7 ± 4.3 | 5.5 ± 4.1 | .14 |
| Health insurance coverage for all medications, n (%) | 1059 (57.1) | 481 (47.9) | <.0001 |
| Laboratory Indicators | |||
| eGFR, mean ± SD | 76.6 ± 15.4 | 74.4 ± 18.4 | .003 |
| Proportion with dyslipidemia, n (%) | 220 (82.7) | 212 (80.0) | .42 |
| Antihypertensive Medications, mean ± SD | 2.2 ± 0.9 | 1.8 ± 0.9 | <.0001 |
| Classes of Antihypertensive Medications | |||
| Angiotensin‐converting enzyme‐inhibitor | 770 (41.2) | 471 (46.8) | .004 |
| Angiotensin receptor blocker | 427 (22.9) | 363 (36.1) | <.0001 |
| Beta blockers | 218 (11.7) | 55 (5.5) | <.0001 |
| Calcium channel blocker | 1,570 (84.1) | 592 (58.8) | <.0001 |
| Diuretics | 732 (39.2) | 159 (15.8) | <.0001 |
| Methyldopa | 282 (15.1) | 163 (16.2) | .44 |
| Hydralazine | 22 (1.2) | 21 (2.1) | .06 |