TABLE 3.
Factors associated with serum 25(OH)D (nmol/L) in older Puerto Rican adults living in Massachusetts
| Model | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 (n = 822) | 2 (n = 822) | 3 (n = 618) | ||||
| β ± SE | P | β ± SE | P | β ± SE | P | |
| Age | 0.12 ± 0.09 | 0.17 | 0.11 ± 0.09 | 0.21 | 0.13 ± 0.10 | 0.20 |
| Female (vs. male) | 3.48 ± 1.56 | 0.03 | 4.03 ± 1.58 | 0.01 | 4.68 ± 1.78 | 0.01 |
| BMI | –0.24 ± 0.10 | 0.02 | –0.21 ± 0.10 | 0.04 | –0.21 ± 0.12 | 0.08 |
| Physical activity1 | –0.15 ± 0.14 | 0.27 | –0.10 ± 0.14 | 0.45 | –0.16 ± 0.16 | 0.31 |
| Dietary vitamin D,2 μg/d | 0.68 ± 0.25 | 0.01 | 0.71 ± 0.25 | 0.004 | 1.05 ± 0.29 | <0.001 |
| Vitamin D supplement use (vs. no) | 4.41 ± 1.86 | 0.02 | 4.50 ± 1.87 | 0.02 | 3.13 ± 2.15 | 0.15 |
| Multivitamin use (vs. no) | 1.94 ± 1.45 | 0.18 | 2.30 ± 1.46 | 0.12 | 2.88 ± 1.64 | 0.08 |
| Calcium supplement use (vs. no) | 2.89 ± 1.71 | 0.09 | 2.67 ± 1.73 | 0.12 | 1.68 ± 1.97 | 0.39 |
| Plasma creatinine, mg/dL | 5.37 ± 2.43 | 0.03 | 5.49 ± 2.45 | 0.03 | 4.86 ± 2.71 | 0.07 |
| Plasma albumin, g/L | –0.14 ± 0.19 | 0.46 | –0.15 ± 0.19 | 0.42 | –0.12 ± 0.24 | 0.63 |
| Smoking (vs. no) | –4.34 ± 1.58 | 0.01 | –4.49 ± 1.58 | 0.01 | –3.60 ± 1.84 | 0.05 |
| Acculturation3 | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.60 | 0.02 ± 0.03 | 0.64 | 0.02 ± 0.04 | 0.65 |
| Sunscreen | –0.78 ± 1.39 | 0.58 | –0.33 ± 1.41 | 0.82 | –0.81 ± 1.60 | 0.61 |
| Season (vs. Autumn) | ||||||
| Winter | –3.81 ± 1.91 | 0.05 | –3.44 ± 1.92 | 0.07 | –3.42 ± 2.17 | 0.12 |
| Spring | –5.07 ± 1.67 | 0.003 | –4.66 ± 1.68 | 0.01 | –5.60 ± 1.94 | 0.004 |
| Summer | –0.47 ± 1.64 | 0.78 | –0.13 ± 1.65 | 0.94 | –0.59 ± 1.92 | 0.76 |
| Months in PRSC4 | 0.96 ± 0.56 | 0.09 | 1.07 ± 0.57 | 0.06 | 1.83 ± 0.66 | 0.01 |
| Income to poverty ratio5 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.02 |
| Alcohol (vs. none) | ||||||
| Moderate | –0.98 ± 1.38 | 0.48 | –1.36 ± 1.38 | 0.33 | –1.01 ± 1.58 | 0.52 |
| Heavy | –3.84 ± 3.01 | 0.20 | –4.39 ± 3.02 | 0.15 | –6.47 ± 3.57 | 0.07 |
| Skin tone (vs. white) | ||||||
| Dark | –5.09 ± 2.19 | 0.02 | — | — | — | — |
| Medium | –5.89 ± 1.58 | <0.001 | — | — | — | — |
| Light | –0.12 ± 1.71 | 0.94 | — | — | — | — |
| Ancestry (vs. European) | ||||||
| Native American | — | — | –4.37 ± 5.43 | 0.42 | — | — |
| African | — | — | –7.74 ± 2.91 | 0.01 | — | — |
| Melanin index of the upper inner right arm6 | — | — | — | — | –2.04 ± 0.84 | 0.02 |
Physical activity score was estimated based on sum of hours spent sleeping or in sedentary, light, moderate, or heavy activities in a 24-h period, multiplied by weighing factors associated with oxygen consumption rates for corresponding activities (range: 24.5–60.5).
Adjusted for energy using the residual method; all models repeated with vitamin D intake not adjusted for energy intake remained significant (P < 0.05).
Acculturation, 100% fully accultured speak fluent English for all interactions, whereas 0% speak only Spanish (range: 0–95.8).
Months lived in Puerto Rico or other southern climate in the past year.
Income to poverty ratio was calculated using total household income divided by poverty threshold for the specific year and household size (39) (range: 1.77–1520).
Melanin index of the upper inner right arm was estimated from the mean of 3 measurements of melanin concentration at the upper inner right arm (range: 0.58–10.9); the model repeated with this measure at the forehead remained significant (P < 0.05), but at the hand, significance was lost (P = 0.22).
PRSC, Puerto Rico or other southern climate.