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. 2021 Mar 30;13(7):1583. doi: 10.3390/cancers13071583

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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E2:ERα nuclear and extra-nuclear signaling to cell proliferation. The nuclear (left) and extra-nuclear (right) signaling pathways are indicated. Localization of the ERα to the cell plasma membrane by palmitoylation is indicated (blue sign). E2:ERα-dependent transcription of the genes containing or non-containing the estrogen response element (ERE) within their promoters as well as E2:ERα-dependent activation of the classic PI3K/AKT and ERK/MAPK kinase cascades are indicated. 17β-estradiol (E2); estrogen receptor α (ERα); Activator Protein 1 (AP-1); estrogen responsive element (ERE); phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K); v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (AKT); mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK); extracellular regulated kinase (ERK).