Table 1.
Demographics and baseline characteristics of included patients
| Characteristics | All patients (n=283) |
Survivors (n=228) |
Non-survivors (n=55) |
P value |
| Male | 159 (56.2) | 125 (54.8) | 34 (61.8) | 0.348 |
| Age (year) | 64.1 (15.9)* | 61.9 (15.8)* | 72.8 (13.5)* | <0.001† |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Caucasian | 143 (50.5) | 111 (48.7) | 32 (58.2) | |
| African-American | 88 (31.1) | 73 (32.0) | 15 (27.3) | |
| Hispanic/Latino | 32 (11.3) | 27 (11.8) | 5 (9.1) | 0.705 |
| Asian | 17 (6.0) | 14 (6.1) | 3 (5.5) | |
| Others | 3 (1.1) | 3 (1.3) | 0 (0) | |
| Comorbidities | ||||
| Obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) | 132 (46.6) | 102 (44.7) | 30 (54.5) | 0.191 |
| Current/former smokers | 109 (38.5) | 88 (38.6) | 21 (38.2) | 0.955 |
| Hypertension | 189 (66.8) | 145 (63.6) | 44 (80.0) | 0.020† |
| Diabetes mellitus | 108 (38.2) | 81 (35.5) | 27 (49.1) | 0.063 |
| Hyperlipidaemia | 121 (42.8) | 94 (41.2) | 27 (49.1) | 0.290 |
| Coronary artery disease | 50 (17.7) | 40 (17.5) | 10 (18.2) | 0.911 |
| Heart failure/cardiomyopathy | 53 (18.7) | 40 (17.5) | 13 (23.6) | 0.299 |
| Arrhythmia/conduction disorders | 45 (15.9) | 36 (15.8) | 9 (16.4) | 0.917 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 66 (23.3) | 46 (20.2) | 20 (36.4) | 0.011† |
| End-stage kidney disease | 13 (4.6) | 12 (5.3) | 1 (1.8) | 0.474 |
| Asthma/COPD | 73 (25.8) | 54 (23.7) | 19 (34.5) | 0.098 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 40 (14.1) | 32 (14.0) | 8 (14.5) | 0.922 |
| Signs and symptoms | ||||
| Cough | 185 (65.4) | 149 (65.4) | 36 (65.5) | 0.988 |
| Dyspnoea | 203 (71.7) | 158 (69.3) | 45 (81.8) | 0.064 |
| Hypoxia (SpO2 <95%) | 178 (62.9) | 130 (57.0) | 48 (87.3) | <0.001† |
| Rhinorrhoea | 29 (10.2) | 26 (11.4) | 3 (5.5) | 0.226 |
| Fever/chills | 179 (63.3) | 143 (62.7) | 36 (65.5) | 0.706 |
| Chest pain | 35 (12.4) | 32 (14.0) | 3 (5.5) | 0.109 |
| Headache | 28 (9.9) | 26 (11.4) | 2 (3.6) | 0.128 |
| Gastrointestinal symptoms | 79 (27.9) | 68 (29.8) | 11 (20.0) | 0.145 |
| Asymptomatic | 8 (2.8) | 8 (3.5) | 0 (0) | 0.361 |
| Rales/crackles | 57 (20.1) | 40 (17.5) | 17 (30.9) | 0.027† |
| Rhonchi | 57 (20.1) | 45 (19.7) | 12 (21.8) | 0.730 |
| Reduced breath sound | 63 (22.3) | 48 (21.1) | 15 (27.3) | 0.320 |
| Laboratory findings | ||||
| Leucopenia (WBC <4000/µL) | 56 (19.8) | 46 (20.2) | 10 (18.2) | 0.739 |
| Leucocytosis (WBC >10 000/µL) | 80 (28.3) | 53 (23.2) | 27 (49.1) | <0.001† |
| Lymphocytopenia (ALC <1000/µL) | 109 (38.7) | 78 (34.2) | 31 (57.4) | 0.002† |
| Thrombocytopenia (<140 000/µL) | 57 (20.1) | 41 (18.0) | 16 (29.1) | 0.065 |
| Thrombocytosis (>400 000/µL) | 31 (11.0) | 25 (11.0) | 6 (10.9) | 0.991 |
| Respiratory acidosis | 43 (21.3) | 18 (11.8) | 25 (50.0) | <0.001† |
| Transaminitis (ALT >3× UNL) | 33 (12.4) | 21 (9.9) | 12 (21.8) | 0.017† |
| Serum creatinine (mg/dL) on admission | 1.06 (0.72)‡ | 1.59 (1.88)* | 1.64 (1.15)* | 0.808 |
| eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) | 64.2 (51.0)* | 66.7 (35.5)* | 53.6 (25.3)* | 0.002† |
| Troponin I (>0.03 ng/mL) | 91 (39.1) | 61 (33.0) | 30 (62.5) | <0.001† |
| Inflammatory markers | ||||
| D-dimer (>500 ng/mL) | 135 (80.4) | 101 (75.4) | 34 (100) | <0.001† |
| Ferritin (>336 ng/mL) | 109 (65.3) | 78 (59.1) | 31 (88.6) | 0.001† |
| Lactate dehydrogenase (>200 U/L) | 108 (73.0) | 77 (67.0) | 31 (93.9) | 0.002† |
| C reactive protein (>1 mg/dL) | 152 (87.4) | 115 (83.9) | 37 (100) | 0.005† |
| Procalcitonin (>0.25 ng/mL) | 73 (47.1) | 50 (41.7) | 23 (65.7) | 0.012† |
| ST-T change on ECG | 84 (31.8) | 63 (29.7) | 21 (40.4) | 0.139 |
| Radiographic findings | ||||
| Opacity/infiltrate | 209 (73.9) | 162 (71.1) | 47 (85.5) | 0.029† |
| Ground-glass appearance | 79 (27.9) | 65 (28.5) | 14 (25.5) | 0.650 |
| Pleural effusion | 24 (8.5) | 17 (7.5) | 7 (12.7) | 0.208 |
| Pulmonary congestion | 30 (10.6) | 23 (10.1) | 7 (12.7) | 0.568 |
| Oxygen therapy/delivery | ||||
| Nasal cannula | 207 (73.1) | 160 (70.2) | 47 (85.5) | 0.022† |
| High-flow nasal cannula | 36 (12.7) | 18 (7.9) | 18 (32.7) | <0.001† |
| NIPPV | 28 (9.9) | 10 (4.4) | 18 (32.7) | <0.001† |
| Mechanical ventilation | 58 (20.5) | 25 (11.0) | 33 (60.0) | <0.001† |
| Intervention | ||||
| Intensive care unit | 89 (31.4) | 47 (20.6) | 42 (76.4) | <0.001† |
| ECMO | 2 (0.7) | 0 (0) | 2 (3.6) | 0.037† |
| RRT | 16 (5.7) | 3 (1.3) | 13 (23.6) | <0.001† |
| Vasopressor | 53 (18.7) | 19 (8.3) | 34 (61.8) | <0.001† |
| Antibiotics | 220 (77.7) | 166 (72.8) | 54 (98.2) | <0.001† |
| Treatment | ||||
| Azithromycin | 182 (64.3) | 139 (61.0) | 43 (78.2) | 0.017† |
| Hydroxychloroquine | 67 (23.7) | 45 (19.7) | 22 (40.0) | 0.002† |
| Steroids | 46 (16.3) | 26 (11.4) | 20 (36.4) | <0.001† |
| Ascorbic acid | 57 (20.1) | 38 (16.7) | 19 (34.5) | 0.003† |
| Zinc | 54 (19.1) | 33 (14.5) | 21 (38.2) | <0.001† |
| Tocilizumab | 12 (4.2) | 6 (2.6) | 6 (10.9) | 0.006† |
| Convalescent plasma | 36 (12.7) | 19 (8.3) | 17 (30.9) | <0.001† |
| Remdesivir | 25 (8.8) | 20 (8.8) | 5 (8.8) | 0.940 |
| Complications | ||||
| Acute kidney injury | 115 (40.6) | 75 (32.9) | 40 (72.7) | <0.001† |
| ARDS | 53 (18.7) | 17 (7.5) | 36 (65.5) | <0.001† |
| Arrhythmias | 31 (11.0) | 18 (7.9) | 13 (23.6) | 0.001† |
| QT prolongation | 25 (8.8) | 18 (7.9) | 7 (12.7) | 0.257 |
| Venous thromboembolism | 10 (3.5) | 8 (3.5) | 2 (3.6) | 1.000 |
| Arterial thrombosis | 1 (0.4) | 1 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 1.000 |
| Cerebrovascular event | 3 (1.1) | 3 (1.3) | 0 (0) | 1.000 |
| Myocardial infarction | 5 (1.8) | 4 (1.8) | 1 (1.8) | 1.000 |
| Heart failure | 16 (5.7) | 11 (4.8) | 5 (9.1) | 0.219 |
| Superimposed bacteraemia | 19 (6.7) | 12 (5.3) | 7 (12.7) | 0.047† |
| Hospital stay (day) | 6.0 (7.0)‡ | 7.4 (7.53)* | 9.2 (7.7)* | 0.125 |
| Outcome | ||||
| Recovery/discharge | 223 (78.8) | |||
| Remained hospitalised | 2 (0.7) | |||
| Death | 55 (19.4) |
*Mean (SD).
†Statistically significant.
‡Median (IQR).
ALC, absolute lymphocyte count; ALT, alanine transaminase; ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome; BMI, body mass index; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; NIPPV, non-invasive positive pressure ventilation; RRT, renal replacement therapy; SpO2, oxygen saturation; UNL, upper normal limit; WBC, white blood cell.