Extended Data Fig. 2. Learning in primary school by region, conditional on country-fixed effects and primary enrolment rates.

We have 72 countries with both learning and enrolment data in primary school with at least two data points over the time period (2000–2015). Estimates are calculated controlling for country-fixed effects using multivariate regression by region. For each region r and outcome y, we run the following specification: $y_{ct}^r={\alpha }^r+{\beta }^{r}t+{\mathbf{\delta }}_c^r+{\gamma }_{ct}^r+{\epsilon }_{ct}^r$, in which t represents the year, δ represents a vector of dummy variables for each country c in a given region r and γ represents primary enrolment rates. We then recover regional time trends accounting for country-fixed effects and conditional on enrolment. The data in this figure includes primary enrolment rates. This measure captures the ratio of all individuals enrolled in a given level of schooling by the population of the age group that should be enrolled at that level according to national regulations or customs accounting for grade repetition. This measure has frequently been used in the literature^29,32. Learning estimates are taken from our database. LAC, Latin American and the Caribbean; MENA, Middle East and North Africa; SSA, sub-Saharan Africa.