Table 1. Physiopathological changes in the heart and cardiovascular system with aging.

CO: cardiac output; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; RV: right ventricle.
Left ventricle	Left ventricular hypertrophy diastolic dysfunction preservation/modestly enhanced ejection fraction (LVEF)
Right ventricle	Preservation right ventricular ejection fraction Diastolic dysfunction Changes in the geometry of RV outflow tract
Atria	Atrial dilatation Mechanical dysfunction Atrial fibrillation
Cardiac function	Decrease in maximal CO Impaired cardiac reserve capacity
Coronary arteries	Endothelial dysfunction Atherosclerotic disease
Chronotropic function	Reduction in maximal heart rate Attenuated chronotropic response to beta-adrenergic stimulation
Myocardial tissue	Myocardial fibrosis due to deleterious effect of chronic neurohumoral activation Cardiac amyloidosis
Arterial function	Arterial stiffness Endothelial dysfunction Isolated systemic hypertension Aortic dilatation Pulmonary hypertension