Table 3.
HRs (95% CIs) of CVD and diabetes mortality according to cooking oil/fat consumption
| Categories of individual cooking oil/fat consumption | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-consumers | T1 | T2 | T3 | P trend | |
| Cardiovascular disease mortality | |||||
| Butter | |||||
| Death cases/n | 23,406/303,987 | 4623/72,377 | 5213/72,378 | 5505/72,378 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.80–0.86) | 0.96 (0.93–0.99) | 1.04 (1.01–1.07) | < 0.001 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.90–0.96) | 1.02 (0.99–1.05) | 1.07 (1.04–1.11) | < 0.001 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.93–1.00) | 1.04 (1.01–1.08) | 1.08 (1.05–1.12) | < 0.001 |
| Margarine | |||||
| Death cases/n | 9305/134,374 | 8630/128,915 | 9901/128,916 | 10,911/128,915 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.90–0.96) | 1.06 (1.03–1.09) | 1.17 (1.14–1.21) | < 0.001 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.92–0.98) | 1.02 (0.99–1.05) | 1.04 (1.01–1.07) | < 0.001 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.97–1.04) | 1.06 (1.02–1.09) | 1.10 (1.06–1.14) | < 0.001 |
| Corn oil | |||||
| Death cases/n | 29,443/399,360 | 2830/40,586 | 3068/40,587 | 3406/40,587 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.93–1.01) | 1.03 (0.99–1.07) | 1.14 (1.10–1.18) | < 0.001 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.96–1.03) | 1.00 (0.97–1.04) | 1.02 (0.99–1.06) | 0.22 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.96–1.05) | 0.99 (0.95–1.03) | 1.00 (0.96–1.03) | 0.78 |
| Canola oil | |||||
| Death cases/n | 28,520/376,913 | 3149/48,069 | 3362/48,069 | 3716/48,069 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.85–0.92) | 0.93 (0.89–0.96) | 1.01 (0.97–1.04) | 0.70 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.92–1.00) | 0.97 (0.94–1.01) | 0.97 (0.94–1.01) | 0.080 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.95–1.04) | 0.98 (0.94–1.02) | 0.97 (0.94–1.00) | 0.052 |
| Olive oil | |||||
| Death cases/n | 27,962/353,766 | 3377/55,784 | 3578/55,785 | 3830/55,785 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.81 (0.78–0.84) | 0.84 (0.81–0.87) | 0.88 (0.85–0.91) | < 0.001 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.89–0.96) | 0.95 (0.92–0.98) | 0.95 (0.92–0.98) | 0.002 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.89–0.97) | 0.95 (0.92–0.99) | 0.95 (0.92–0.99) | 0.001 |
| Diabetes mortality | |||||
| Butter | |||||
| Death cases/n | 389/72,377 | 427/72,378 | 537/72,378 | 3512/72,378 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.67–0.83) | 0.84 (0.76–0.94) | 1.10 (1.00–1.21) | 0.062 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.84–1.04) | 0.96 (0.86–1.06) | 1.11 (1.01–1.22) | 0.037 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.86–1.09) | 0.99 (0.89–1.11) | 1.18 (1.06–1.32) | 0.004 |
| Margarine | |||||
| Death cases/n | 782/134,374 | 732/128,915 | 896/128,916 | 1102/128,915 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.85–1.04) | 1.16 (1.05–1.27) | 1.44 (1.32–1.58) | < 0.001 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.88–1.07) | 1.03 (0.93–1.13) | 1.06 (0.96–1.16) | 0.091 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.93–1.18) | 1.08 (0.97–1.21) | 1.12 (1.00–1.26) | 0.047 |
| Corn oil | |||||
| Death cases/n | 2670/399,360 | 235/40,586 | 296/40,587 | 311/40,587 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.77–1.00) | 1.09 (0.97–1.23) | 1.15 (1.03–1.30) | 0.009 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 1.06 (0.94–1.19) | 0.95 (0.85–1.07) | 0.56 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.83–1.12) | 1.02 (0.90–1.16) | 0.95 (0.84–1.07) | 0.41 |
| Canola oil | |||||
| Death cases/n | 2560/376,913 | 270/48,069 | 325/48,069 | 357/48,069 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.74–0.95) | 1.00 (0.89–1.12) | 1.09 (0.97–1.21) | 0.14 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.87–1.12) | 1.10 (0.98–1.23) | 0.99 (0.88–1.10) | 0.95 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 1.07 (0.92–1.24) | 1.08 (0.96–1.22) | 0.99 (0.88–1.11) | 0.96 |
| Olive oil | |||||
| Death cases/n | 2635/353,766 | 257/55,784 | 309/55,785 | 311/55,785 | |
| Model 1a | 1.00 | 0.64 (0.56–0.73) | 0.76 (0.67–0.85) | 0.75 (0.67–0.84) | < 0.001 |
| Model 2b | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.75–0.97) | 0.97 (0.86–1.09) | 0.87 (0.77–0.98) | 0.022 |
| Model 3c | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.72–0.98) | 0.94 (0.83–1.06) | 0.87 (0.77–0.99) | 0.019 |
HRs (95% CIs) were estimated using Cox proportional hazards models. CI confidence interval, HR hazard ratio, T tertile
aAdjusted for age and sex
bAdditionally adjusted for BMI (in kg/m2; < 18.5, 18.5 to 25, 25 to 30, 30 to 35, ≥ 35, or missing), race (white, black, Hispanic/Asian/Pacific Islander/American Indian/Alaskan native, or unknown/missing), education (less than high school, high school graduate, some college, college graduate, or unknown/missing), marital status (married/living as married or widowed/divorced/separated/never married/unknown), household income (quintiles), smoking (never smoked; quit, ≤ 20 cigarettes a day; quit, > 20 cigarettes a day; currently smoking, ≤ 20 cigarettes a day; currently smoking, > 20 cigarettes a day; or unknown), alcohol (0, 0.1–4.9, 5.0–29.9, or ≥ 30 g/day), vigorous physical activity (never/rarely, 1–3 times/month, 1–2 times/week, 3–4 times/week, ≥5 times/week, or unknown/missing), usual activity at work (sit all day, sit much of the day/walk sometimes, stand/walk often/no lifting, lift/carry light loads, and carry heavy loads), perceived health condition (excellent, very good, good, fair or poor), and history of heart disease (yes or no), stroke (yes or no), diabetes (yes or no), and cancer (yes or no) at baseline
cAdditionally adjusted for Healthy Eating Index-2015, total energy intake, and consumption of remaining oils where appropriate (butter, margarine, lard, corn oil, canola oil, olive oil, and other vegetable oils)