Table 3.
Characteristics and findings of the studies examining the association between smoking and type 2 diabetes.
| Work | Year | Study | Design | Sample Size(%DM) | %M/W | Age (Years) | Ethnicity | Follow-up Duration (Years) | Adjusted Variables | Findings | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [110] | 1989 | ZS [111] | PCS | 841 (6.9%) | 100/0 | 40-59 | Dutch | 25 | Age, subscapular skin-fold, resting heart rate, cigarette use, alcohol intake and energy intake | Cigarettes/day 0 20 | HR 1.0 3.3 (1.4-7.9) |
| [67] | 1993 | NHS [80] | PCS | 114247 (2.04%) | 0/100 | 30-55 | USA | 12 | Age, BMI, family history of diabetes, menopause, postmenopausal hormone use, oral contraceptive use, alcohol consumption, and physical activity | Cigarettes/day 0 1-14 15-24 25 Ex-smoker | RR 1.0 0.90 (0.68-1.19) 1.20 (0.96-1.50) 1.49 (1.19-1.87) 1.17 (1.02-1.35) |
| [68] | 1995 | HPFS | PCS | 41810 (1.22%) | 100/0 | 40-75 | USA | 62 | Age, BMI, family history of diabetes, alcohol consumption and physical activity | Cigarettes/day 0 1-14 15-24 25 Ex-smoker | RR 1.0 1.37 (0.77-2.43) 2.38 (1.57-3.59) 1.94 (1.25-3.03) 1.29 (1.05-1.57) |
| [112] | 1997 | RS | PCS | 2312 (1.77%) | 100/0 | - | Japanese | 8 | - | Cigarettes/day 0 1-15 16-25 26 | HR 1.0 1.33 (0.40-4.39) 3.59 (1.32-9.76) 2.68 (0.88-8.05) |
| [73] | 1997 | SOF [113] | CSS | 9435 (7%) | 0/100 | 65 | Non-black (USA) | - | Age, resting heart rate, BMI, education level, alcohol intake, energy expenditure, WHR, and postmenopausal hormone use | Cigarettes/day 0 10 10 Ex-smoker | OR 1.0 0.55 (0.30-0.99) 1.21 (0.87-1.71) 0.99 (0.82-1.19) |
| [114] | 1999 | OHS | PCS | 6250 (7.2%) | 100/0 | 25-60 | Japan | 16 | Age, BMI, alcohol consumption, physical activity, parental history of diabetes, fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol, and triglycerids | Cigarettes/day 0 1-20 21-30 30 | RR 1.0 1.40 (1.05-1.86) 1.40 (1.02-1.93) 173 (1.20-2.48) |
| [69] | 2000 | PHS [115] | PCS | 21068 (3.65%) | 100/0 | 40-84 | USA | 12.10 | Age, BMI, physical activity, history of hypertension, history of high cholesterol, parental history of myocardial infarction, and alcohol consumption | Cigarettes/day 0 20 20 Ex-smoker | RR 1.0 1.5 (1.0-2.2) 1.7 (1.3-2.3) 1.1 (1.0-1.4) |
| [116] | 2001 | RS | CSS | 3718 | 19.2/ 80.0 | 12-88 | Chinese | - | Age, BMI, alcohol consumption, and family history of diabetes | Smoking No Yes | OR 1.0 1.705 (1.106-2.630) |
| [65] | 2001 | BRHS [117] | PCS | 7124 (4.07%) | 100/0 | 40-59 | UK | 16.8 | Age, BMI, physical activity, alcohol intake, social class, heart disease and antihypertensive treatment | Smoking No Yes Pipe/cigar Ex-smoker (15 yrs.) Ex-smoker (10 yrs.) | RR 1.0 1.61 (1.05-2.46) 2.15 (1.24-3.70) 1.45 (0.95-2.21) 2.03 (1.22-3.37) |
| [63] | 2001 | CPS-I [118] | PCS | 709827 (3.6%) | 38.8/ 61.2 | 30 | Whites and Blacks (USA) | 13 | Age, BMI, alcohol consumption, race, amount of exercise, education level, and intakes of fats and carbohydrates | Cigarettes/day 0 20 (M) 20 (W) 20-39 (M) 20-39 (W) 40 (M) 40 (W) Ex-smoker (M) Ex-smoker (W) | OR 1.0 1.05 (0.98-1.12) 0.98 (0.93-1.03) 1.19 (1.13-1.26) 1.21 (1.14-1.29) 1.45 (1.34-1.57) 1.74 (1.49-2.03) 1.07 (1.02-1.13) 1.07 (0.99-1.15) |
| [119] | 2001 | NHS [80] | PCS | 84941 (3.9%) | 0/100 | 30-55 | USA | 16 | Age, family history of diabetes, menopausal status, postmenopausal hormone use, fat intake, and physical activity | Cigarettes/day 0 1-14 15 | OR 1.0 1.14 (0.85-1.54) 1.40 (1.14-1.71) |
| [120] | 2002 | NCDS [121] | - | 15396 | M/W | - | UK | 33 | Maternal smoking during pregnancy, sex, mother’s age at the time of giving birth, age at which mother left school, family social class at birth, birth weight, own smoking at the age of 16, and BMI at the age of 33 | Cigarettes/week Self 0 1 1-9 10-19 20-29 30 Mother Non-smoker Medium-smoker Medium to heavy-smoker Heavy-smoker | OR 1.0 2.07 (0.25-17.19) 1.92 (0.52-7.10) 2.48 (0.52-11.97) 1.61 (0.20-12.96) 3.62 (1.42-9.24) 1.0 1.01 (0.23-4.53) 3.53 (0.88-14.38) 4.02 (1.14-14.14) |
| [74] | 2004 | RIH | CSS | 27777 | 45/ 55 | 20-69 | France | - | Age, BMI, WHR, and alcohol consumption | Smoking No Yes (M) Yes (W) Ex-smoker (M) Ex-smoker (W) | OR 1.0 1.49 (1.13-1.96) 0.89 (0.54-1.39) 1.31 (1.01-1.70) 1.46 (0.92-2.22) |
| [122] | 2004 | NTHS [123] | PCS | 38805 | 46.9/ 53.1 | 20 | Norwegian | 11 | Age, BMI, and sex | Cigarettes/day 0 20 | RR 1.0 1.64 (1.12-2.39) |
| [70] | 2005 | IRAS [95] | PCS | 906 (25%) | 43.3/ 56.7 | 40-69 | Non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics, and African-Americans | 5 | Age, sex, ethnicity, BMI, WHR, glucose tolerance status, HDL cholesterol level, triglyceride level and hypertension | Smoking No Ex-smoker Current-smoker | OR 1.0 1.31 (0.82-2.09) 2.66 (1.49-4.77) |
| [77] | 2006 | KMIC [124] | PCS | 27635 | 100/0 | 35-44 | Korea | 8 | Age, baseline fasting serum, glucose, weight change, baseline BMI, family history of diabetes, alcohol consumption, and physical activity | Cigarettes/day No 10 10-19 20 Ex-smoker (8 yrs.) Ex-smoker (7-7.9 yrs.) Ex-smoker (5-6.9 yrs.) | OR 1.0 1.23 (1.86-1.77) 1.60 (1.28-2.00) 1.75 (1.35-2.27) 0.95 (0.72-1.25) 1.44 (0.96-2.15) 2.13 (1.51-3.00) |
| [71] | 2009 | RS | PCS | - | M/W | 40-69 | Ansung and Ansan Korean | 4 | Age, family history of diabetes, rural or urban area, waist, body fat, exercise, alcohol consumption, income, education, WBC, HDL cholesterol, triglyceride, systolic BP, HOMA IR, and HOMA beta | Cigarettes/day No 20 Y20 Ex-smoker | RR 1.0 2.06 (1.35-3.16) 2.41 (1.48-3.93) 1.60 (1.07-2.39) |
| [75] | 2010 | ARIC [36] | PCS | 10892 (11.51%) | 43.3/ 56.7 | 45-64 | Whites and Non-whites (USA) | 9 | Race, sex, level of education, BMI, waist circumference, baseline age, physical activity, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and systolic BP | Smoking No Ex-smoker (9 yrs.) Ex-smoker (6-9 yrs.) Ex-smoker (3-6 yrs.) Ex-smoker (3 yrs.) Current-smoker | HR 1.0 1.16 (0.99-1.36) 1.21 (0.89-1.65) 1.54 (1.10-2.14) 1.80 (1.44-2.25) 1.26 (1.08-1.46) |
| [66] | 2010 | KORA S4/F4 [125] | PCS | 885 | 50.4/ 49.6 | 55-74 | Germany | 7 | Age, sex, parental diabetes, socioeconomic status, alcohol intake, physical activity, intake of meat and sausage, intake of salad and vegetables, intake of whole grain bread, coffee consumption, waist circumference, blood pressure, hypertriglyceridemia, HDL cholesterol, log insulin and log adiponectin | Smoking No (passive+active) Passive Passive+prediabetes Active Active+prediabetes | OR 1.0 2.5 (1.1-5.6) 4.4 (1.5-13.4) 2.8 (1.3-6.1) 7.8 (2.4-25.7) |
| [64] | 2010 | KCPS [126] | PCS | 1236443 | 63.7/ 36.3 | 30-95 | Korea | 14 | Age, alcohol drinking, BMI, and physical exercise | Cigarettes/day No 1-9 (M) 1-9 (W) 10-19 (M) 10-19 (W) 20 (M) 20 (W) | HR 1.0 1.30 (1.25-1.32) 1.34 (1.25-1.44) 1.37 (1.34-1.41) 1.26 (1.14-1.38) 1.55 (1.51-1.60) 1.33 (1.15-1.53) |
| [72] | 2011 | NHS [80] | PCS | 100526 (5.36%) | 0/100 | 41-55 | USA | 24 | Age, BMI, physical activity, husband’s education, family history of diabetes, total energy intake, alcohol intake, caffeine, total transa fat, toatl saturated fat, calcium, magnesium and vitamin D | Cigarettes/day No Low passive High passive 1-14 15-24 25 Ex-smoker | RR 1.0 1.10 (0.94-1.23) 1.16 (1-1.35) 1.39 (1.17-1.64) 1.68 (1.43-2.01) 1.98 (1.57-2.36) 1.28 (1.12-1.50) |
| [78] | 2012 | JPHC [127] | PCS | 59834 | 43.24/ 56.76 | Mean 55-57.9 | Japanese | 5 and 10 | Age, BMI, history of hypertension, alcohol intake, family history of diabetes, weight change, study area, and leisure time physical activity | Smoking No Current-smoker (M) Current-smoker (W) Ex-smoker (5 yrs.) (M) Ex-smoker (5 yrs.) (W) | OR 1.0 1.43 (1.16-1.76) 1.42 (1.03-1.94) 1.68 (1.07-2.63) 2.84 (1.53-5.29) |
| [76] | 2012 | RS | PCS | 2070 (11.9%) | 100/0 | 40-69 | Japan | 9.2 | Age, blood glucose, fasting, systolic BP, total cholesterol, log-transformed triglycerides, alcohol consumption, exercise, family history of diabetes, BMI, and change in smoking status during follow-up period | Smoking No Ex-smoker (9 yrs.) Ex-smoker (6-9 yrs.) Ex-smoker (3-5 yrs.) Ex-smoker (3 yrs.) Current-smoker | HR 1.0 2.22 (1.05-4.69) 0,59 (0.13-2.64) 1.95 (0.62-6.17) 1.91 (0.60-6.06) 2.78 (1.43-5.41) |
| [128] | 2013 | WHI [129] | PCS | 11838 | 0/100 | 50-79 | USA | 11 | Age, ethnicity, education, BMI, waist circumference, alcohol consumption, physical activvity, hypertension and medication for high cholesterol | Smoking No Current-smoker (M) Ex-smoker (3 yrs.) | HR 1.0 1.28 (1.20-1.36) 1.43 (1.26-1.63) |
ZS-Zutphen Study, NHS-Nurse Health Study, NHIS-National Health Interview Survey, HPFS-Health Professionals’ Follow-up Study, RS-Random Sample, SOF-Study of Osteoporotic Fractures, OHS-Osaka Health Survey, PHS-Physicians Health Survey, BRHS-British Regional Health Study, CPS-Cancer Prevention Study, NCDS-National Child Development Study, RIH-Regional Institute for Health, NTHS-Nord Trondelag Health Survey, IRAS-Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study, ARIC-Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities, KCPS-Korean Cancer Prevention Study, JPHC-Japan Public Health Center, WHI-Women Health Initiative, KMIC-Korean Medical Insurance Corporation, M-Men, W-Women, PCS-Prospective Cohort Study, CSS-Cross-Sectional Study.