Table 4.
Estimates of direct pathways in the cross-lagged model from parental harshness and parental disengagement at ages 1–15 years to age 15 depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and antisocial behaviors.
| β | 95% CI | |
|---|---|---|
| Parental harshness at 1y | ||
| African American or multiracial | 0.19*** | 0.09, 0.29 |
| Parental disengagement at 1y | ||
| Female | −0.14† | −0.29, 0.01 |
| Parental harshness at 3y | ||
| Parental harshness at 1y | 0.22* | 0.02, 0.42 |
| Parental disengagement at 1y | −0.04 | −0.18, 0.10 |
| Female | −0.13† | −0.28, 0.02 |
| Poverty ratio at birth | −0.18* | −0.31, −0.04 |
| Parental disengagement at 3y | ||
| Parental harshness at 1y | 0.04 | −0.06, 0.15 |
| Parental disengagement at 1y | 0.20 | −0.07, 0.46 |
| Maternal education | −0.19** | −0.31, −0.08 |
| Parental harshness at 5y | ||
| Parental harshness at 3y | 0.46*** | 0.27, 0.65 |
| Parental disengagement at 3y | 0.02 | −0.13, 0.16 |
| Female | −0.12† | −0.27, 0.02 |
| Maternal education | −0.14* | −0.26, −0.01 |
| African American or multiracial | 0.15* | 0.01, 0.28 |
| Parental disengagement at 5y | ||
| Parental harshness at 3y | −0.06 | −0.30, 0.18 |
| Parental disengagement at 3y | 0.44* | 0.08, 0.80 |
| Maternal age | −0.12* | −0.24, −0.01 |
| Parental harshness at 9y | ||
| Parental harshness at 5y | 0.50*** | 0.38, 0.63 |
| Parental disengagement at 5y | 0.00 | −0.16, 0.16 |
| Female | −0.16* | −0.29, −0.03 |
| Parents married at child’s birth | 0.16* | 0.03, 0.29 |
| African American or multiracial | 0.15* | 0.04, 0.27 |
| Parental disengagement at 9y | ||
| Parental harshness at 5y | 0.17† | −0.03, 0.38 |
| Parental disengagement at 5y | 0.21 | −0.12, 0.55 |
| Poverty ratio at birth | −0.10** | −0.18, −0.03 |
| Parental harshness at 15y | ||
| Parental harshness at 9y | 0.45*** | 0.31, 0.58 |
| Parental disengagement at 9y | −0.05 | −0.18, 0.08 |
| Parents married at child’s birth | −0.17** | −0.30, −0.05 |
| Parental disengagement at 15y | ||
| Parental harshness at 9y | −0.07 | −0.20, 0.07 |
| Parental disengagement at 9y | 0.06 | −0.14, 0.26 |
| Overall cortisol output at 15y | ||
| Parental disengagement at 1y | −0.13** | −0.20, −0.05 |
| Parental harshness at 15y | 0.14* | 0.02, 0.26 |
| African American or multiracial | 0.36*** | 0.26, 0.46 |
| Hair straightening | 0.21** | 0.09, 0.34 |
| Poverty ratio at 15y | −0.16** | −0.28, −0.04 |
| Hair quantity (2cm versus 1cm) | 0.17* | 0.03, 0.31 |
| Depressive symptoms at 15y | ||
| Overall cortisol output at 15y | 0.15† | −0.02, 0.31 |
| Parental disengagement at 1y | 0.11* | 0.003, 0.22 |
| Female | 0.23*** | 0.11, 0.35 |
| Parents married at child’s birth | 0.14† | −0.01, 0.30 |
| Anxiety symptoms at 15y | ||
| Overall cortisol output at 15y | 0.07 | −0.07, 0.20 |
| Parental harshness at 3y | −0.21* | −0.38, −0.05 |
| Parental disengagement at 3y | 0.20* | 0.03, 0.38 |
| Parental harshness at 15 years | 0.17* | 0.02, 0.31 |
| Antisocial behaviors at 15y | ||
| Overall cortisol output at 15y | −0.16† | −0.33, 0.01 |
| Parental harshness at 3y | −0.19† | −0.38, 0.01 |
| Parental harshness at 15y | 0.40*** | 0.23, 0.56 |
| Poverty ratio at 15y | −0.15* | −0.28, −0.02 |
| African American or multiracial | 0.16** | 0.05, 0.27 |
Note. All estimates reported are standardized estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for each of the direct pathways to behavior problems. Dependent variables are in bold with independent variables and associated standardized (β) coefficients. Note. Covariates were included in the final model if they were associated with the model variable at p < .10.
†
p < 0.10
*
p<.05.
**
p<.01.
***
p<.001.