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. 2021 Apr 19;12:2326. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-22460-1

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — a Large signal model of a photovoltaic (PV) modulator. By controlling the current flowing through the transistor (I_sw) via the gate voltage (V_gs) we can switch the voltage at the modulator terminals (V_mod) between 0 and the open-circuit voltage of the device V_oc. Simulation (lines) and experimental (crosses) data is shown. Diamonds and circles highlight the bias point resulting in maximum gain. b Voltage gain A_ν (top) and bandwidth (bottom) at the maximum gain point as a function of photogenerated current (I_pc). c Achievable bandwidth as a function of the reduction in electrical energy consumption compared to conventional modulation, calculated using Eq. (1). C_mod = 20 fF and C_g is calculated as outlined in Supplementary Discussion 4. d–g Extinction ratio (ER) as a function of 3 dB bandwidth in a PV modulator for four different electrical energy consumptions (E_el). Crosses correspond to a Lorentzian resonance with a loaded quality factor Q_loaded = 6000, and dots to Q_loaded = 12,000. The maximum insertion loss of the modulation is limited to 6 dB in all plots. Different colors correspond to different generated photocurrents as indicated in (d).