Effects of 3D printed scaffolds, with and without the incorporation of small molecules, on mMSC viability, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation. (A) Typical live/dead staining images (scale bars: 100 μm, red: dead cells, green: live cells) of mMSC on different scaffolds; (B) MTT assay for mMSC proliferation seeded on various scaffolds (n=5, bars that do not share letters are significantly different from each other (p<0.05), # indicates a significant difference compared to the scaffold only group); (C) ALP staining images of the various scaffolds with mMSCs after osteogenic induction (scale bars: 500 μm); (D) ALP activity test (n=5, ***p<0.001); (E) qPCR analysis of ALP, Runx2, OCN, and Col 1A1 genes for mMSC seeded on different scaffolds after 14 day differentiation (n=3; ***p < 0.001, bars that do not share letters are significantly different from each other (p<0.05)).