. 2021 Mar 28;10(4):639. doi: 10.3390/plants10040639

Table 1.

Overview of morphological and physiological effects in plants related to MCs concentrations reported in the literature. The information is organized by species and study. Moreover, plant species were ordered on the basis of species sensitivity to MCs, taking into account that this assessment depends on the investigation performed (germination test, hydroponics, soil experiment). No changes observed (nd); relative growth rate (RGR); pure toxin (*); crude extract or natural lake/reservoir water containing MCs (#); information not available (--); irrigation with polluted water (IPW); cultivation with polluted soil (CPS); application of cyanobacterial manure (ACM); 2, 4, 4′-Trichlorobiphenyl (PCB-28).

Plant Species	Growth Stage ⁽¹⁾	Type Experiment/Exposure Time (days) ⁽²⁾	Toxin ⁽³⁾	Toxin Conc. (µg/L) ⁽⁴⁾	Physiological and Morphological Parameters ⁽⁵⁾	Reference
EUDICOTS
Spinacia oleracea (6 cultivars)	Seedlings	Soil culture/42	MC-LR #	0.5	< photosynthetic oxygen production	[44]
Spinacia oleracea	Developed plants	Hydroponics/21	MC-LR #	50	< leaf fresh weight	[23]
Spinacia oleracea	Developed plants	Hydroponics/21	MC-LR, CYN #	5 and 25	< leaf fresh weight	[23]
Lepidium sativum	Seeds	Germination/6	MC-LR #*	10	< total fresh weight	[41]
Lepidium sativum	Seeds	Germination/6	MC-LR #*	1–10	< root length; leaf length	[41]
Solanum lycopersicum	Seeds	Germination/7	MCs	50 and 100	> radicle length	[45]
				500–20,000	< radicle length
		Soil culture/14		5–100	> shoot dry weight
	Seeds	Soil culture/90	MCs	5	Anticipation of bloom of first flower; anticipation of first inflorescence emergence	[37]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/24	MCs	3–6	< inhibition of root length; carbohydrate content	[35]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/24	MCs	6	< chlorophyll content; inhibition of stem length; decrease in surface leaf area	[35]
Raphanus sativus	Seedlings	Soil culture/64	MC-LR *#	raw water + MC-LR	< taproot fresh weight	[46]
	1-seeds	Soil culture 45	MC-LR + MC-RR #	3.76	< leaf biomass; taproot biomass; taproot volume	[47]
	2-seedlings	Soil culture 45	MC-LR + MC-RR #	3.76	< taproot biomass; taproot volume	[47]
Daucus carota	Seeds	Soil culture/75	MC-LR + MC-RR #	3.76	< leaf biomass; taproot biomass; taproot volume	[47]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/28	MC-LR *	1–100	< taproot mass and taproot diameter; taproot diameter	[48]
	Developed plants	Soil experiment/32	MC-LR #	50	< root fresh weight; < ascorbic acid (vitamin c)	[25]
	Developed plants	Soil experiment/32	MC-LR #	10	> max. fluorescence yield	[25]
Cucumis sativus	Seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	5	< RGR; > H2O2, O2⁻, MDA	[49]
	1-seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	1	< plant height	[50]
				10–1000	< plant height; stem diameter; number of leaves; leaf area; root dry weight; shoot dry weight; yield
	2-flowering				< plant height; stem diameter; leaf area
				100–1000	< number of leaves; shoot dry weight; root dry weight; yield
	3-fruiting			10–1000	< plant height; leaf area; root dry weight
				100–1000	< stem diameter; number of leaves; shoot dry weight; yield
Medicago sativa	Seeds	Germination/7	MC-LR, MC-LW *#	5	< length of primary root; > lipid peroxidation	[42]
	Seedlings	Irrigation/30	MCs #	5–20	< shoot dry weight; root dry weight; nodules dry weight	[51]
	Seedlings	Irrigation/30	MCs #	10–20	< root nodule number	[51]
Lactuca sativa	1-seeds	Germination/3	MC-LR *, Cu	50	< germination	[52]
	2-seedlings	Hydroponics/14		5	< total fresh weight
				50	< root length
				1000	< shoot length
	1-seeds	Soil experiment/60	MCs	5.11	< root biomass; root/shoot biomass; > chlorophyll content	[53]
	2-seedling -cotyledon stage				< root biomass; root/shoot biomass
	3-seedling with 2 and 4 leaves				nc
	Seeds	Germination/7		50–5000	> radicle length	[45]
	Seedlings	Soil culture/60		2.61, 5.22	nc	[54]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/15	MC-LR + MC-RR #	0.65–13	> net photosynthetic rate; leaf tissue transpiration; intercellular CO₂ concentration	[36]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/15	MC-LR + MC-RR #	0.65 and 2.5	> stomatal conductance	[36]
	Developed plants	Hydroponics/10	MC-LR *	1 and 10	> leaf biomass	[24]
			MC-LR *	1 and 100	> root biomass
			MC-LR + CYN *	100	< leaf biomass
	Developed plants	Soil culture/28	MC-LR *	5–100	< leaf length	[48]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/28	MC-LR *	1–100	< total leaf mass; number of leaves	[48]
Vicia faba	1-seeds	Germination/7	MCs	50 and 100	< germination	[55]
	2-seedlings	Hydroponics/48			< shoot dry weight; root dry weight; rhizobia nodules dry weight
	2-seedlings				< shoot and root dry weight; rhizobia nodules dry weight
	2-seedlings			10–100	< number of rhizobia nodules
	Seedlings	Soil culture/28	MCs	100	< shoot and root dry weight; root nodule number	[56]
Ipomoea batatas	Developed plants	Soil culture/10	MC-LR #*, ACM	150	< main root length	[57]
Ipomoea batatas	Developed plants	Soil culture/10	MC-LR #*, IPW, CPS, ACM	150	< total weight; aerial part weight	[57]
Brassica juncea	Developed plants	Soil culture/10	MC-LR #*, IPW, ACM	150	< plant height; total weight	[57]
Brassica juncea	Developed plants	Soil culture/10	MC-LR #*, IPW, CPS, ACM	150	< main root length; aerial part weight	[57]
Brassica alboglabra	Developed plants	Soil culture/10	MC-LR #*, IPW	150	< main root length	[57]
Brassica alboglabra	Developed plants	Soil culture/10	MC-LR #*, IPW, CPS, ACM	150	< plant height; total weight; aerial part weight	[57]
Petroselinum crispum	Developed plants	Soil culture/7	MCs	100–1000	nc	[38]
Coriandrum sativum	Developed plants	Soil culture/7	MCs	100–1000	nc	[38]
Brassica napus	Seeds	Germination/10d	MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR #	600–3000	< germination	[58]
Brassica napus	Seeds	Germination/10d	MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR #	120–3000	< plant height	[58]
Phaseolus vulgaris	Seeds	Germination/1	(D-Leu1) MC-LR *	3500	< germination; > stomatal density and conductivity	[27]
	Seeds	Germination/1	(D-Leu1) MC-LR and MC-LR *	3500	delay seedling development; > morphological anomalies; delay phototropic response	[27]
	Seeds	Germination/1	(D-Leu1) MC-LR and MC-LR *	3500	< chlorophyll content; delay seedling development	[28]
		Germination/1	(D-Leu1) MC-LR and MC-LR *	15000	> lipid peroxidation
			(D-Leu1) MC-LRR *	3500	< germination
	Developed plants	Soil culture/28	MC-LR *	1 and 5	> bean length	[48]
	Developed plants	Soil culture/28	MC-LR *	10-100	< bean mass; number of beans	[48]
*MONOCOTS*
Triticum aestivum	1-seeds	Germination/3	MC-RR, MC-LR #	0.5	< germination	[40]
Triticum aestivum	2-seedlings	Soil culture/15	MC-RR, MC-LR #	0.5	< shoot length; root length; photosynthetic oxygen production	[40]
Triticum aestivum	Seeds	Germination/7	MCs	5000–20000	< germination	[45]
				50 and 100	> radicle length
				20000	< radicle length
Zea mays	Seeds	Germination/--	MCs (6 analogues) #*	5	< germination; shoot length; root length	[39]
Oryza sativa	Seeds	Germination/10	MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR #	600–3000	< plant height	[58]
	Seeds	Germination/10	MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR #	120–3000	< root length; root fresh weight	[58]
	Seedlings	Soil culture/60	MCs	2.61, 5.22	nc	[54]
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/30	MCs	5–500	< root dry weight	[30]
				50–500	< root length, surface area and volume; root surface area; root volume; lateral root number
				500	< crown root number
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/30	MCs	50–500	< plant height; root length; shoot dry weight; >membrane permeability	[31]
				5–500	< root dry weight
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	1	> root biomass	[32]
				1–3000	< stem biomass
				100–3000	< leaves biomass
				1000–3000	< root biomass; grains per panicle; grain weight per panicle; setting percentage
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	1	> root surface area, shoot height	[21]
				10	< root surface area
				100	< shoot height
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	1	> leaves dry weight; stem dry weight; roots dry weight	[34]
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	100–3000	< leaves dry weight; stem dry weight; roots dry weight; net photosynthetic rate (Pn)	[34]
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	5	> H₂O₂, O_2-, MDA	[49]
				10	< RGR
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/21	MCs	10	> shoot and root dry weight; P content in shoots and roots	[59]
	Seedlings	Hydroponics/21	MCs, Cd	10	< root dry weight	[59]
	1-seedlings	Hydroponics/7	MCs	10–1000	< root surface area	[33]
	1-seedlings	Hydroponics/7		100–1000	< plant height; Net assimilation rate; filled grains per panicle; seed setting rate; panicle weight; soluble protein, sugar and starch in grain
	2-booting			100–1000	< plant height; root surface area; Net assimilation rate; filled grains per panicle; seed setting rate; panicle weight; soluble protein, sugar and starch in grain
	3-filling			10–1000	< seed setting rate
				100–1000	< root surface area; Net assimilation rate; filled grains per panicle; panicle weight; soluble protein, sugar and starch in grain
				1000	< plant height

^(1). The numbers in this column indicate the different experiments performed in the study. ^(2). Experiments were categorized as follows: germination, hydroponics and soil cultures. The time plants were exposed to the toxin is expressed in days. ^(3). Unless otherwise stated, the source of toxin is natural or cultured cyanobacterial bloom material. Microcystin variants reported are those identified and quantified by the authors. The abbreviation “MCs” is used when no information is available concerning the chemical variants present in toxic material. Other contaminants, or specific treatment conditions investigated in combination with the toxin, are also indicated. ^(4). Concentration of MCs causing the effect ^(5). Main morphological and physiological parameters measured in the study.