Figure 1.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and its contribution towards aging and disease development and progression. Stress stimulus and irregular cellular metabolism may lead to the increased production of ROS and RNS, and decreased antioxidant defense parameters, which eventually result in mitochondrial dysfunction due to a defective mitochondrial respiratory chain, mutation in mtDNA, altered MMP and influenced Ca²⁺ homeostasis. These events could promote apoptosis, paving the road for aging and disease development and progression. ROS, reactive oxygen species; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; MMP, mitochondrial membrane potential; ATP, adenosine triphosphate.