Table 1.

Xanthophylls in algae: mass production, concentration, and application.

Mol.	Algae	Extraction	Concentration	Applications	Ref.
FU	Fucus vesiculosus	Enzyme-assisted extraction	0.66 mg/g DW	Development of value-added nutraceutical products from seaweed	[42]
	Fucus serratus	Supercritical fluid extraction	2.18 mg/g DW	Obtaining high-purity fucoxanthin	[43]
	Laminaria japonica	Microwave-assisted extraction	0.04 mg/g DW	Obtaining high-purity fucoxanthin	[44]
	Laminaria japonica	Maceration	0.10 mg/g DW	Drug against chronic kidney disease	[45]
	Undaria pinnatifida	Microwave-assisted extraction	0.90 mg/g DW	Obtention of high-purity fucoxanthin	[44]
	Undaria pinnatifida	Maceration	3.09 mg/g DW	Scones	[46]
	Undaria pinnatifida	Supercritical fluid extraction	0.99 mg/g DW	Carotenoid isolation	[3]
	Undaria pinnatifida	Maceration	2.67 mg/g DW	Drug development	[47]
	Padina tetrastromatica	Ultrasonic-assisted extraction	0.75 mg/g DW	Nutraceuticals and biomedical applications	[48]
	Cystoseira hakodatensis	Maceration	3.47 mg/g DW	Optimization of the environmental conditions	[49]
	Himanthalia elongata	Maceration	18.60 mg/g DW	Commercial fucoxanthin production	[50]
	Tisochrysis lutea	Ultrasonic-assisted extraction	0.25 mg/g DW	Nutraceutical, cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications, such as for the treatment of metastatic melanoma	[51]
	Pavlova lutheri	Ultrasonic-assisted extraction	0.03 mg/g DW	Yogurt	[52]
	Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Maceration	0.1 mg/g DW	Milk	[53]
AS	Haematococcus pluvialis	Conventional extraction	900 kg/2 ha/year	Antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, ocular protective effect, antidiabetic, coloring agent	[54]
	Haematococcus pluvialis	Two-stage system	3.8% dw		[55]
	Haematococcus pluvialis	Enzyme	3.6% dw		[56]
	Haematococcus pluvialis	Conventional extraction	2–3% dw		[57]
	Haematococcus pluvialis	Pressurized extraction	99% of total AS		[58]
LU	Chlorella protothecoides	Maceration	83.8 mg/L	Antioxidant, light-filtering, eye protection, colorant, potential therapeutic use against several chronic diseases, lower risk of cancer, anti-inflammatory benefits	[59]
	Chlorella protothecoides	Mechanical	83.8 mg/L		[60]
	Chlorella protothecoideswas	Mechanical	4.92 mg/g		[61]
	Chlorella vulgaris	Heptane–ethanol–water extraction	30 mg/g		[62]
	Scenedesmus almeriensis	-	0.54% wt		[63]
	Dunaliella salina	Conventional extraction	15.4 mg m−2 d−1		[64]
ZEA	Nannochloropsis oculata	Supercritical fluids extraction	13.17 mg/g	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, eyes and UV light protection, prevention of coronary syndromes, anti-tumoral, anti-cardiovascular diseases, and structural actions in neural tissue	[65]
	Chlorella ellipsoidea	Pressurized liquid extraction	4.26 mg/g		[66]
	Synechocystis sp	Pulse electric field	1.64 mg/g		[1]
	Himanthalia elongata	Pulse electric field	0.13 mg/g		[1]
	Heterochlorella luteoviridis	Moderate electric field	244 µg/g		[9]
CRY	Spirulina platensis	Supercritical fluid extraction	7.5 mg/100 g	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer (lung, oral, pharyngeal), improves respiratory function, stimulation of bone formation and protection, modulation response to phytosterols in post-menopausal women, decreases risk of degenerative diseases	[34,67]
	Palisada perforata	Conventional extraction	14.2% total carotenoids		[68]
	Gracilaria gracilis	Conventional extraction	10.2% total carotenoids		[68]
	Pandorina morum	Maceration	2.38 µg/g DW		[69]
	Nanochlorum eucaryotum	Enzyme extraction	-		[70]
SIP	Codium fragile	Maceration	16 mg/kg fresh algae	Anti-angiogenic, antioxidant, cancer-preventing action; inhibit adipogenesis	[71]
	Caulerpa lentillifera	Maceration	0.1% DW		[72]
	Umbraulva japonica	Maceration	0.1% DW		[35]
DIAD	Phaeodactylum tricornutum	MeOH extraction	19% of total pigments	Antioxidant	[73]
	Phaeodactylum tricornutum	MeOH extraction	-		[74]
	Odontella aurita	EtOH extraction	10% total carotenoids		[75]
	Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Whole	14 µg/L		[76]
DIAT	Phaeodactylum tricornutum	MeOH extraction	17% of total pigments	Antioxidant	[73]

Mol: Molecules/compounds; FU: Fucoxanthin; AS: Astaxanthin; LU: Lutein; ZEA: Zeaxanthin; CRY: β-cryptoxanthin; SIP: Siphonaxanthin; DIAD: Diadinoxanthin; DIAT: Diatoxanthin. dw: Dry weight.