Table 2.
Delivery systems used to increase marine carotenoids’ bioavailability.
| Mol. | Delivery System | Assay | Benefits | Results | Use | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FU | Palm stearin solid lipid core | In vitro | Increase stability during storage | Release of FU of 22.92% during 2 h in SGF and 56.55% during 6 h SIF | Oral supplements | [149] |
| Nanoparticles of zein | ABTS DPPH | Increase antioxidant activity | More antioxidant than free FU | Foods and beverages | [150] | |
| Nanoemulsion | In vitro | Increase stability during storage; antiobesity | 95% of FU remains in the emulsion after 4 weeks | Food, beverages, nutraceutics | [151] | |
| Nanoemulsion (LCT) | In vitro digestion and bioability assays in rats | Increase stability | Increase FU level in serum blood (LCT > MCT) | Functional foods and nutraceutics | [152] | |
| Chitosan–glycolipid nanogels | In vitro | Significant increase in bioavailability | Lpx levels (nmol MDA/mL) higher in control (30.9) than in emulsions (17.0–12.15) | Foods and nutraceutics | [153] | |
| AS | Fish oil | In vitro | Useful for supplementation | Better antioxidant effect | Oral supplements | [154] |
| Encapsulation | TBARS Peroxide enzymes | Increase stability | Better antioxidant effect | Foods | [155] | |
| Pectin–chitosan multilayer | Stability Assays | Increase stability | Better stability than monolayer | Nutraceuticals, functional, medical foods | [156] | |
| l-lacic acid | Release and stability test | Increase stability | Enhance stability | Functional foods and nutraceutics | [157] | |
| Ascobyl palmitate emulsion | Stability assay | Sublingual delivery | Enhance sports performance, skin protection, cardioprotective | Dietetic supplementation in sports | [158] | |
| LU | β-CD | In vitro | Increase stability | More stable against oxidating agents | Foods | [159] |
| Glycyrrhizic acid, arabinogalactan | In vitro | Solubility enhancement | Prevention of H-aggregates formation, increase of photostability | Foods | [159] | |
| ZEA | Sea Buckthorn oil and water emulsion | Stability and digestive assays | Increase bioaccesibility | Increase 64.55% | Functional foods and nutraceutics | [160] |
| High-pressure treatment | Stability and digestive assays | Improve Nannochloropsis sp. ZEA disponibility | Foods | [161] | ||
| Glycyrrhizic acid, arabinogalactan | In vitro | Solubility enhancement | Prevention of H-aggregates formation, increase of photostability | Foods | [159] |
SGF: Simulated gastric fluid; SIF: Simulated intestinal fluid; LCT: Long-chain triglycerides; MCT: Medium-chain triglycerides.