Table 1.

Therapeutic effects of natural plant-derived vesicles purified from different fruits and vegetables. The table includes the plant species used as source of PDVs, the PDV size distribution, the biological activity observed, the experimental model employed to study the biological effects of PDVs together with the respective reference.

Species	Size	Biological Activity	Experimental Model	Reference
Grape	50–300 nm 500–1000 nm	oral mucositis protection of mice from dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis via induction of intestinal stem cells anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative	colitis mouse model murine macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) intestinal stem cells of Lgr5-EGFP-IRES-CreERT2 mice	ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01668849 [2,16]
Grapefruit	105.7–396.1 nm microvesicles (MVs 350–700) and nanovesicles (NVs 50–80 nm) 50–1000 nm	anti-inflammatory in vitro antineoplastic activity anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative	C57BL/6 mouse model CD11b+F4/80+ lamina propria macrophages (LPMs) tumor cell lines (A375, A549, MCF3) murine macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) intestinal stem cells of Lgr5-EGFP-IRES-CreERT2 mice	[2,74,82]
Ginger	102.3–998.3 nm 120–150 nm (rhizome) average size of ∼230 nm 90–1000 nm	liver protection inhibitory effects on activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome reduction of acute colitis, enhancement of intestinal repair, and prevention of chronic colitis and colitis-associated cancer (CAC) anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative	mouse model alcohol-induced liver damage primary macrophages mouse colitis models murine macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) intestinal stem cells of Lgr5-EGFP-IRES-CreERT2 mice	[2,59,61,79]
Carrot	85–110 nm 700–1500 nm	Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative	murine macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) intestinal stem cells of Lgr5-EGFP-IRES-CreERT2 mice	[2]
Broccoli	18.3–118.2 nm	anti-inflammatory	BMDC-T cell co-cultures mouse colitis models	[45]
Limon	50–70 nm	in vitro and in vivo antineoplastic activity anti-oxidative	tumor cell lines (A549, SW480, LAMA84) NOD/SCID mice gastric cancer cell lines (AGS, BGC-823, SGC-7901) SGC-7901 tumor mouse model	[19,20,83]
Orange	50–150 nm	recovery of intestinal functions beneficial effects on metabolism and villi size	Caco-2 cells metabolic syndrome mouse model	[55]
Strawberry	30–191 nm	anti-oxidative	adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs)	[34]
Garlic	70–200 nm	anti-inflammatory	liver cells (HepG2 cell line)	[81]
Ginseng	Average size of ~344.8 nm	inhibition of melanoma growth	murine melanoma cell line (B16F10), breast cancer cell line (4T1) and human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK293T) melanoma mouse model (MyD88-, TLR4- and TLR2- deficient C57/BL6 mice)	[21]
Apple		Intestinal function	Caco-2 cells	[22]
Wheat	40–100 nm	Regenerative properties	primary human dermal fibroblasts (HDF; human endothelial vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC); human keratinocytes (HaCat)	[23]
Aloe and Ginger		reduce insulin resistance and chronic inflammation		ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03493984