Figure 4.

Impact of chronic exposure to glyphosate (10 mg/L), N. ceranae (100,000 spores/bee at day 0), and both stress factors combined on honey bee immunity (lysozyme, glucose oxidase), vitellogenin and DWV infection level evaluated using qPCR. Twelve honey bees per treatment (four bees per cage, from three independent cages) were individually sampled and analyzed at 0, 7 and 14 days of exposure. Relative quantification was performed using honey bee’s RPS5 as a reference gene. Results are shown as box plots, including median, 25 and 75% quartiles and outliers’ values.