Table 2.
Demographic, lifestyle, and clinical correlates of olfactory impairment, hyposmia, and anosmia (n = 4,514).
| Characteristics | Olfactory impairment | Hyposmia | Anosmia | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1a | Model 2a | Model 1a | Model 2a | Model 1a | Model 2a | |
| Age (years) | 1.08 (1.07–1.10)b | 1.08 (1.06–1.10)b | 1.06 (1.04–1.07)b | 1.05 (1.04–1.07)b | 1.12 (1.10–1.13)b | 1.11 (1.09–1.13)b |
| Sex (male vs. female) | 1.23 (1.06–1.43)b | 1.04 (0.82–1.33) | 1.24 (1.05–1.47)b | 1.10 (0.84–1.44) | 1.21 (1.01–1.44)b | 0.98 (0.74–1.30) |
| Education Level | ||||||
| Illiteracy | 2.15 (1.74–2.66)b | 2.10 (1.69–2.61)b | 1.93 (1.52–2.45)b | 1.93 (1.51–2.46)b | 2.43 (1.89–3.12)b | 2.32 (1.79–3.00)b |
| Elementary school | 1.41 (1.18–1.69)b | 1.41 (1.18–1.70)b | 1.36 (1.11–1.67)b | 1.37 (1.12–1.69)b | 1.48 (1.19–1.84)b | 1.47 (1.18–1.84)b |
| Middle school or above | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| APOE ε4 carrier | 1.02 (0.86–1.22) | 1.00 (0.83–1.19) | 1.11 (0.91–1.35) | 1.09 (0.89–1.32) | 0.92 (0.75–1.14) | 0.89 (0.72–1.11) |
| Smoking Status | ||||||
| Never | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Former | 1.14 (0.88–1.46) | 1.12 (0.87–1.45) | 1.14 (0.86–1.51) | 1.12 (0.84–1.49) | 1.12 (0.83–1.51) | 1.12 (0.83–1.52) |
| Current | 1.31 (1.03–1.66)b | 1.30 (1.01–1.67)b | 1.19 (0.91–1.55) | 1.19 (0.90–1.57) | 1.46 (1.10–1.94)b | 1.45 (1.08–1.94)b |
| Alcohol Drinking | ||||||
| No or occasional | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Light to moderate | 0.98 (0.81–1.19) | 0.96 (0.79–1.17) | 1.01 (0.81–1.25) | 0.99 (0.80–1.24) | 0.96 (0.76–1.20) | 0.92 (0.73–1.17) |
| Heavy | 0.97 (0.72–1.32) | 0.93 (0.68–1.28) | 0.90 (0.64–1.28) | 0.89 (0.62–1.27) | 1.06 (0.74–1.53) | 0.99 (0.68–1.44) |
| Physical inactivity | 1.02 (0.89–1.16) | 0.99 (0.86–1.14) | 0.99 (0.85–1.15) | 0.98 (0.84–1.14) | 1.05 (0.89–1.23) | 1.01 (0.86–1.19) |
| Hypertension | 0.85 (0.74–0.98)b | 0.91 (0.79–1.04) | 0.83 (0.71–0.97)b | 0.87 (0.74–1.02) | 0.88 (0.75–1.04) | 0.95 (0.81–1.13) |
| Diabetes | 1.06 (0.89–1.28) | 1.10 (0.91–1.32) | 1.06 (0.86–1.29) | 1.09 (0.89–1.34) | 1.09 (0.89–1.34) | 1.11 (0.89–1.38) |
| Dyslipidemia | 0.96 (0.83–1.12) | 0.99 (0.85–1.16) | 0.96 (0.81–1.14) | 0.99 (0.83–1.18) | 0.97 (0.81–1.16) | 1.00 (0.83–1.20) |
| BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||
| Normal (<24) | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Overweight (24–27.9) | 0.85 (0.73–0.98)b | 0.86 (0.74–0.99)b | 0.86 (0.73–1.02) | 0.88 (0.74–1.03) | 0.83 (0.70–0.98)b | 0.84 (0.70–0.99)b |
| Obesity (≥28) | 0.71 (0.60–0.84)b | 0.73 (0.61–0.87)b | 0.77 (0.63–0.93)b | 0.79 (0.65–0.97)b | 0.64 (0.52–0.79)b | 0.66 (0.53–0.82)b |
| Dementia | 4.41 (2.36–8.24)b | 4.21 (2.23–7.94)b | 2.99 (1.53–5.85)b | 2.93 (1.48–5.80)b | 5.94 (3.12–11.29)b | 5.57 (2.90–10.70)b |
| Depressive symptoms | 1.10 (0.89–1.36) | 0.98 (0.79–1.23) | 0.95 (0.74–1.22) | 0.89 (0.69–1.14) | 1.28 (1.00–1.64)b | 1.11 (0.86–1.43) |
| Parkinson's disease | 2.48 (0.95–6.52) | 2.51 (0.94–6.67) | 2.29 (0.81–6.47) | 2.34 (0.82–6.68) | 2.72 (0.96–7.65) | 2.70 (0.94–7.76) |
| Cardiovascular disease | 0.99 (0.87–1.14) | 0.99 (0.86–1.14) | 1.03 (0.89–1.20) | 1.04 (0.89–1.22) | 0.95 (0.81–1.11) | 0.93 (0.78–1.09) |
| Cancer | 1.50 (0.84–2.69) | 1.48 (0.82–2.66) | 1.42 (0.75–2.72) | 1.38 (0.72–2.65) | 1.60 (0.83–3.11) | 1.61 (0.83–3.15) |
| Head Injury | ||||||
| No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Yes | 1.69 (1.24–2.31)b | 1.68 (1.23–2.30)b | 1.68 (1.19–2.36)b | 1.68 (1.19–2.36)b | 1.73 (1.21–2.47)b | 1.68 (1.18–2.41)b |
| Non-traumatic | 1.47 (1.00–2.15)b | 1.46 (0.99–2.15) | 1.46 (0.96–2.22) | 1.45 (0.95–2.22) | 1.48 (0.95–2.29) | 1.46 (0.94–2.28) |
| Traumatic | 2.16 (1.27–3.66)b | 2.15 (1.27–3.65)b | 2.15 (1.22–3.78)b | 2.15 (1.21–3.79)b | 2.17 (1.20–3.91)b | 2.15 (1.19–3.89)b |
| Sinonasal disease | 1.42 (1.13–1.79)b | 1.44 (1.14–1.83)b | 1.29 (1.00–1.68) | 1.31 (1.01–1.71)b | 1.58 (1.21–2.06)b | 1.61 (1.23–2.11)b |
BMI, Body mass index.
a
Data are odds ratio (95% confidence interval). Participants without olfactory impairment (n = 1,456) held as referent category for binary logistic regression model and multinomial logistic models. Model 1 was adjusted for age, sex, and education; and in model 2, additional adjustment was made for all the other factors included in the table.
b
P < 0.05.