Table 4.
Multivariate associations between daily consumption of specific foods and food groups and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) levels in participant serum, neighborhood deprivation index (NDI), and inflammatory markers, adjusted for ASCVD 10 y risk score and BMI.
| Food, Food Group | Mean ± SD | Range (Min, Max) |
TMAO | NDI | IL-1β | IL-6 | IL-8 | TNF-α |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β (p-Value) |
β (p-Value) |
β (p-Value) |
β (p-Value) |
β (p-Value) |
β (p-Value) |
|||
| Whole grains (n = 52) | 1.00 ± 0.78 | (0.03–4.00) | −0.08 (0.56) |
−0.03 (0.81) |
−0.05 (0.72) |
0.01 (0.95) |
0.23 (0.12) |
−0.07 (0.63) |
| Red meat (n = 50) a | 0.32 ± 0.43 | (0.00–2.00) | −0.09 (0.52) |
0.09 (0.55) |
0.13 (0.37) |
−0.07 (0.62) |
0.14 (0.33) |
−0.61 (0.67) |
| Processed meat (n = 51) | 0.25 ± 0.27 | (0.00–1.00) | 0.09 (0.51) |
0.08 (0.60) |
0.13 (0.36) |
−0.16 (0.25) |
0.34
(0.02) |
0.26 (0.07) |
| Fried foods (n = 52) b | 0.28 ± 0.28 | (0.03–1.00) | −0.15 (0.32) |
0.21 (0.15) |
0.14 (0.35) |
−0.15 (0.29) |
0.05 (0.75) |
−0.13 (0.39) |
| Fast foods (n = 51) c | 0.13 ± 0.23 | (0.00–1.00) | −0.09 (0.51) |
0.18 (0.18) |
0.001 (0.99) |
−0.07 (0.60) |
0.06 (0.67) |
0.01 (0.97) |
| Regular soda (n = 49) | 0.18 ± 0.36 | (0.00–2.00) | −0.10 (0.47) |
0.14 (0.32) |
0.18 (0.19) |
−0.20 (0.88) |
0.13 (0.33) |
−0.17 (0.22) |
| Sweetened fruit drinks (n = 52) d | 0.46 ± 1.06 | (0.00–7.00) | 0.13 (0.37) |
0.05 (0.71) |
0.06 (0.66) |
−0.06 (0.67) |
−0.01 (0.94) |
−0.04 (0.78) |
| Fruit (n = 54) e | 0.80 ± 0.80 | (0.00–3.00) | −0.11 (0.44) |
0.09 (0.54) |
0.02 (0.89) |
0.34
(0.01) |
0.12 (0.36) |
0.34
(0.02) |
| Green, leafy salads (n = 49) | 1.00 ± 1.47 | (0.00–7.00) | −0.14 (0.35) |
−0.05 (0.76) |
0.13 (0.36) |
0.18 (0.21) |
0.01 (0.96) |
0.08 (0.59) |
| Vegetables (n = 52) f | 0.57 ± 0.72 | (0.00–4.00) | −0.04 (0.77) |
0.15 (0.30) |
0.10 (0.48) |
0.03 (0.83) |
0.09 (0.57) |
0.08 (0.59) |
| Other vegetables (n = 52) g | 0.62 ± 0.62 | (0.00–3.00) | −0.13 (0.38) |
−0.05 (0.75) |
0.33
(0.03) |
0.30
(0.04) |
−0.14 (0.37) |
0.07 (0.66) |
| Beans (n = 52) | 0.21 ± 0.26 | (0.00–1.00) | −0.07 (0.63) |
0.09 (0.55) |
0.01 (0.96) |
0.08 (0.59) |
0.06 (0.70) |
0.08 (0.60) |
| Coffee (n = 48) | 0.60 ± 0.64 | (0.00–2.00) | −0.07 (0.66) |
0.06 (0.71) |
0.14 (0.35) |
0.01 (0.95) |
−0.02 (0.91) |
0.15 (0.33) |
Bold indicates p-value < 0.05. ASCVD: atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease; BMI: body mass index; IL: interleukin; TNF: tumor necrosis factor. a Red meat: beef, pork, ham, or sausage, answers do not include chicken, turkey or seafood. b Fried foods: chips, french fries, fried meats, fried appetizers, and fried pastries. c Fast foods: breakfast, lunch, or dinner in a fast-food restaurant. d Sweetened fruit drinks: sports or energy drinks, fruit juices made at home with added sugar; does not include diet drinks or artificially sweetened drinks. e Fruit: includes fresh, frozen, or canned fruit. f Vegetables: orange-colored vegetables (i.e., sweet potatoes, pumpkin, winter squash, or carrots). g Other vegetables: not, including green leafy or lettuce salads, orange-colored vegetables, or beans.