Table 4.
Piper betle against various fungal species.
| Extract/Preparation/Isolate (Unit for Activities) | Method | Fungal Species | Activities | Recalculated (%) | MFC/MIC | Inhibition Zone (mm) | Reference | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MIC | MFC | MIC | MFC | ||||||
| Young leaves | [39] | ||||||||
| Ethanol (μg/mL) | Broth microdilution | Candida albicans (CI) | 500 | - | 0.05 | - | - | 8–15 | |
| Ethyl acetate (μg/mL) | Broth microdilution | Candida albicans (CI) | 250 | - | 0.025 | - | - | 10–22 | |
| Mature leaves | [39] | ||||||||
| Ethanol (μg/mL) | Broth microdilution | Candida albicans (CI) | 750 | - | 0.075 | - | - | 5–22 | |
| Ethyl acetate (μg/mL) | Broth microdilution | Candida albicans (CI) | 125 | - | 0.0125 | - | - | 17–26 | |
| Ethyl acetate | Well-diffusion | Aspergillus niger | - | - | - | - | - | 28 | [10] |
| Aspergillus sp. | - | - | - | - | - | 5 | |||
| Hexane | Well-diffusion | Aspergillus niger | - | - | - | - | - | 28 | [10] |
| Aspergillus sp. | - | - | - | - | - | 8 | |||
| Hexane (mg/mL) | Disk diffusion | Candida albicans DMST 8684 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 2 * | 21.00 ± 1.40 | [30] |
| Candida albicans DMST 5815 | 1.00 | 4.00 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 4 ** | 20.67 ± 0.58 | |||
| Ethyl acetate (mg/mL) | Disk diffusion | Candida albicans DMST 8684 | 0.50 | 2.00 | 0.05 | 0.2 | 4 ** | 23.00 ± 0.00 | [30] |
| Candida albicans DMST 5815 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 2 * | 24.33 ± 0.58 | |||
| BLEO (μL/mL) | Solid dilution | Alternaria alternate | 0.53 | - | 0.053 | - | - | - | [18] |
| Aspergillus candidus | 0.57 | - | 0.057 | - | - | - | |||
| Aspergillus flavus | 0.7 | - | 0.07 | - | - | - | |||
| Aspergillus fumigatus | 0.40 | - | 0.04 | - | - | - | |||
| Aspergillus niger | 0.73 | - | 0.073 | - | - | - | |||
| Aspergillus sydowi | 0.63 | - | 0.063 | - | - | - | |||
| Aspergillus terreus | 0.60 | - | 0.060 | - | - | - | |||
| Cladosporium cladosporoides | 0.67 | - | 0.067 | - | - | - | |||
| Culcularia lunata | 0.50 | - | 0.05 | - | - | - | |||
| Fusarium oxysporum | 0.50 | - | 0.05 | - | - | - | |||
| Mucor sp. | 0.37 | - | 0.037 | - | - | - | |||
| Mycelia sterilia | 0.30 | - | 0.03 | - | - | - | |||
| Nugrospora sp. | 0.53 | - | 0.053 | - | - | - | |||
| Penicillium italicum | 0.40 | - | 0.04 | - | - | - | |||
| BLEO (mg/mL) | Microdilution broth & growth inhibitory assay | Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404 | 2 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 * | - | [24] |
| Candida albicans ATCC 10231 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida albicans (CI) | 2 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida tropicalis ATCC 750 | 2 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 * | - | |||
| BLEO (μL/mL) | Broth microdilution | Trichophyton mentagrophytes (CI) | 0.2–0.4 | 0.4 | 0.00002–0.00004 | 0.00004 | 1–2 * | - | [40] |
| Trichophyton mentagrophytes DMST 19735 | 0.2–0.4 | 0.4 | 0.00002–0.00004 | 0.00004 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| Microsporum canis (CI) | 0.2–0.4 | 0.4 | 0.00002–0.00004 | 0.00004 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| Microsporum canis DMST 29297 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.00002–0.00004 | 0.00004 | 2 * | - | |||
| Microsporum gypseum (CI) | 0.4–0.8 | 0.8 | 0.00004–0.00008 | 0.00008 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| Microsporum gypseum DMST 21146 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.00008 | 0.00008 | 1 * | - | |||
| BLEO (%v/v) | Disk diffusion | Candida albicans ATCC 10231 | 0.078 | - | 0.078 | - | - | 33.83 + 0.76 | [2] |
| Candida glabrata ATCC 90030 | 0.039 | - | 0.039 | - | - | 33.83 + 0.76 | |||
| Candida krusei ATCC 6258 | 0.078 | - | 0.078 | - | - | 32.66 + 0.57 | |||
| Candida parapsilosis ATCC 22019 | 0.039 | - | 0.039 | - | - | 33.83 + 0.76 | |||
| Candida pseudotropicalis (CI) | 0.039 | - | 0.039 | - | - | 33.50+0.50 | |||
| Candida stellatoidia (CI) | 0.039 | - | 0.039 | - | - | 35.50+0.86 | |||
| Candida tropicalis (CI) | 0.078 | - | 0.078 | - | - | 30.83+0.28 | |||
| BLEO-microemulsion (μL/mL) | Broth dilution | Aspergillus flavus | - | 15 | - | 1.5 | - | - | [41] |
| Penicillium expansum | - | 15 | - | 1.5 | - | - | |||
| Hydroxychavicol (μg/mL) | Broth microdilution | Aspergillus flavus MTCC 1973, 2799 | 250 | 250 | 0.025 | 0.025 | 1 * | - | [38] |
| Aspergillus flavus (CI) | 125-500 | 125–500 | 0.0125–0.05 | 0.0125–0.05 | 1 * | ||||
| Aspergillus fumigatus MTCC 1811 | 250 | 250 | 0.025 | 0.025 | 1 * | - | |||
| Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404 | 125 | 125 | 0.0125 | 0.0125 | 1 * | - | |||
| Aspergillus niger (CI) | 125-250 | 125-250 | 0.0125–0.05 | 0.0125–0.05 | 1 * | ||||
| Aspergillus parasiticus MTCC 2796 | 250 | 250 | 0.025 | 0.025 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida albicans ATCC 90028, 10231 | 250 | 250 | 0.025 | 0.025 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida albicans (CI) | 125–500 | 250–500 | 0.0125–0.05 | 0.0125–0.05 | 1–2 * | ||||
| Candida glabrata ATCC 90030 | 31.25 | 31.25 | 0.003125 | 0.003125 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida glabrata (CI) | 15.62–31.25 | 15.62–62.5 | 0.001562–0.003125 | 0.001562–0.00625 | 1–2 * | ||||
| Candida krusei ATCC 22019 | 15.62 | 62.5 | 0.001562 | 0.00625 | 4 ** | - | |||
| Candida krusei (CI) | 15.62–31.25 | 15.62–31.25 | 0.001562–0.003125 | 0.001562–0.003125 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida neoformans ATCC 204092 | 62.5 | 62.5 | 0.00625 | 0.00625 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida neoformans (CI) | 62.5 | 62.5 | 0.00625 | 0.00625 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida parapsilosis ATCC 22019 | 31.25 | 31.25 | 0.003125 | 0.003125 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida parapsilosis (CI) | 31,25–62.5 | 31,25–62.5 | 0.003125–0.00625 | 0.003125–0.00625 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida tropicallis ATCC 750 | 250 | 250 | 0.025 | 0.025 | 1 * | - | |||
| Candida tropicallis (CI) | 125–500 | 250–500 | 0.0125–0.05 | 0.025–0.05 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| Epidermophyton floccosum MTCC 613 | 15.62 | 15.62 | 0.001562 | 0.001562 | 1 * | - | |||
| Epidermophyton floccosum (CI) | 15.62 | 31.25 | 0.001562 | 0.003125 | 2 * | ||||
| Microsporum canis MTCC 2820 | 15.62 | 31.25 | 0.001562 | 0.003125 | 2 * | - | |||
| Microsporum canis (CI) | 15.62 | 31.25 | 0.001562 | 0.003125 | 2 * | - | |||
| Micosporum gypsium MTCC 2819 | 15.62 | 31.25 | 0.001562 | 0.003125 | 2 * | - | |||
| Micosporum gypsium (CI) | 7.81–15.62 | 15.62–31.25 | 0.000781–0.001562 | 0.001562–0.003125 | 2 * | - | |||
| Trichophyton mentagrophytes ATCC 9533 | 15.62 | 15.62 | 0.001562 | 0.001562 | 1 * | - | |||
| Trichophyton mentagrophytes (CI) | 15.62–31.25 | 15.62–62.5 | 0.001562–0.003125 | 0.001562–0.00625 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| Trichophyton rubrum MTCC 296 | 31.25 | 31.25 | 0.003125 | 0.003125 | 1 * | - | |||
| Trichophyton rubrum (CI) | 15.62–62.5 | 31.25–62.5 | 0.001562–0.00625 | 0.003125–0.00625 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| 4-allylpyrocatechol (μg/mL) | Broth Microdilution | Candida albicans DMST 8684 | 400 | 500 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 1.25 * | - | [35] |
BLEO = betel leaves essential oil, CI = clinical isolate, MIC = minimum inhibitory concentration; MFC = minimum fungicidal concentration, - = Data not available, * = fungicidal, ** = fungistatic.