Table 1.
Mechanisms of positive-strand RNA viruses to affect the nucleus–cytoplasmic trafficking.
| Group Baltimore | RNA-Virus (Family) | Viral Protein |
NPC Alteration Mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|
| IV (ssRNA+) | SARS-CoV (Coronaviridae) |
NSP1 | Nup93 delocalization to nucleoplasm [9]. |
| SARS-CoV-2 (Coronaviridae) |
ORF6 | Delocalization of RAE-1 and Nup98 to the cytoplasm and nuclear accumulation of hnRNP A1 [10] | |
| SARS-CoV-2 (Coronaviridae) |
ORF6 | Hijacking the RAE-1-Nup98 complex to prevent the nuclear translocation of STAT-1 and 2 and the IFN response [11]. | |
| DENV (Flaviviridae) | NS3pro | Cleavage of Nup153, Nup98, and Nup62 by the viral protease [12]. | |
| ZIKV (Flaviviridae) | NS3pro | Cleavage of TPR, Nup153, and Nup98 by the viral protease [12]. | |
| Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (Arteriviridae) |
Nsp1β | Alteration of the immune response through the interaction with Nup62 interrupts the import of transcription factors related to IFN [13]. | |
| Encephalomyocarditis virus (Picornaviridae) | Leader | Inhibition of the nucleus–cytoplasmic trafficking by hyper-phosphorylation of Nup62, Nup153, and Nup214 [14]. | |
| Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (Picornaviridae) | Leader | Blocking the cellular mRNA export and promotion phosphorylation of Nup98 [15]. | |
| Rhinovirus (Picornaviridae) |
2Apro | Cleavage of Nup62, Nup98, Nup153, Nup98 by the viral protease alters nucleus–cytoplasmic transport [3,5,8,16,17]. | |
| Rhinovirus (Picornaviridae) |
3C pro/3CD | Cleavage of Nup358 (TPR), Nup214, Nup153, and Nup62 by viral protease alters nucleus–cytoplasmic transport [16,17]. | |
| Poliovirus (Picornaviridae) |
2Apro | Cleavage of Nup153, Nup98, Nup62 by viral protease alters nucleus–cytoplasmic transport [4,6]. | |
| V (ssRNA−) | Rift Valley fever virus (Phenuiviridae) | Non-structural protein | Alteration of the antiviral response due to the degradation of Nup62. Besides, the participation of Nup98 in the nuclear import of NSs and in viral replication [18]. |
| Influenza A virus (Orthomyxoviridae) |
NS2 | Interaction with Nup214 for the export of viral RNA [19]. | |
| Influenza A virus (Orthomyxoviridae) |
NS2 | Interaction with Nup98 to promote viral spread [20]. | |
| Influenza A virus (Orthomyxoviridae) |
- | Regulation of the antiviral immune response by lowering Nup98 and Rae1. Deterioration of mRNA export [21]. | |
| VI (ssRNA-RT) | VIH-1 (Retroviridae) | - | Relocation of hnRNP A1 and vRNA to the cytoplasm by the negative regulation of Nup62 [22]. |
| VIH-1 (Retroviridae) | Capsid | Participation of RanBP2/Nup358, Nup153, and Nup98 in anchoring the capsid to the nucleus [23,24,25,26,27,28]. |