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. 2021 Apr 20;10(4):961. doi: 10.3390/cells10040961

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Production of sphingosine-1-phosphate by damaged cells. (1) Sphingosine, located in the outer leaflet of the cell membrane, is the substrate of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). (2) When the cell membrane is damaged, (3) sphingosine reacts with enzymes (Enz1, Enz2) and is phosphorylated to become S1P. Released S1P binds to S1P receptor 2, a G-protein coupled receptor, on Muse cells to attract them to the site of damage. This figure was reproduced with permission from Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology (Springer, copyright 2018 [2]).