TABLE 1.
Modulation of host defences by mycotoxins, peptide, and protein toxins.
| Toxin | Function | References |
| Gliotoxin | • Induces apoptosis (macrophages/dendritic cells/monocytes/eosinophils) • Inhibits phagocytic function (macrophages/neutrophils) • Induces ROS production (macrophages) • Cytoskeletal remodelling (macrophages) • Inhibits formation of lamellipodia (macrophages) • Inhibits cytokine production (macrophages/dendritic cells/monocytes/eosinophils) • Inhibits activation (neutrophils) • Inhibits filopodia production (neutrophils) • Induces F-actin reorganisation (neutrophils) • Reduces ROS production (neutrophils) • Inhibits NADPH oxidative burst (neutrophils) |
•Mullbacher and Eichner, 1984 •Waring et al., 1988 •Suen et al., 2001 •Levin et al., 2015 •Schlam et al., 2016 •Orciuolo et al., 2007 •Coméra et al., 2007 •Tsunawaki et al., 2004 •Stanzani et al., 2005 •Fujihara et al., 2002 •Johannessen et al., 2005 |
| Aflatoxins | • Inhibits phagocytosis (macrophages) • Inhibits NO production (macrophages) • Induces cell cycle arrest (macrophages) • Induces formation of METs • Inhibits intracellular ROS (high dose: neutrophils) • Induces intracellular ROS (macrophages/neutrophils) • Inhibits chemotactic responses (neutrophils) • Inhibits intracellular killing of pathogens (neutrophils) • Induces cytokine expression (2 h: dendritic cells) • Reduces phagocytic ability (12 h: dendritic cells) • Inhibits T-cell activation (12 h: dendritic cells) • Reduces TEER (epithelial cells) • Reduces expression of tight junction proteins (epithelial cells) • Increases paracellular permeability (epithelial cells) |
•Stanzani et al., 2005 •Orciuolo et al., 2007 •Bianco et al., 2012 •An et al., 2017 •Mehrzad et al., 2020 •Ubagai et al., 2008 •Mehrzad et al., 2011 •Mohammadi et al., 2014 •Mehrzad et al., 2014 •Caloni et al., 2012 •Gao et al., 2017 |
| Ochratoxin | • Inhibits IL-1α/TNF-α production in vivo (macrophages) • Cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptotic genes (macrophages) • Induces IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in vitro (macrophages) • Induces necrosis (neutrophils) • Reduces NO production (neutrophils) • Reduces chemotactic responses (macrophages/neutrophils) • Reduces phagocytic responses (neutrophils) • Reduces TEER (epithelial cells) • Inhibits expression of tight junction proteins (epithelial cells) |
•Dhuley, 1997 •Brennan et al., 2017 •Müller et al., 1995 •Kupski et al., 2016 •Richetti et al., 2005 •McLaughlin et al., 2004 •Wang et al., 2017 |
| Fumonisin | • Induces apoptosis (macrophages) • Inhibits phagocytic ability (macrophages) • Inhibits expression and secretion of cytokines (macrophages) • Inhibits maturation (dendritic cells) |
•Grenier et al., 2011 •Qureshi and Hagler, 1992 •Liu et al., 2002 •Devriendt et al., 2010 |
| T-2 | • Induces apoptosis (macrophages) • Inhibits NO production (macrophages) • Inhibits oxidative burst (macrophages) • Inhibits secretion of inflammatory cytokines (macrophages) • Induces formation of balloon-like protrusions (BLPs: mice) • Induces cell death (dendritic cells/monocytes) • Inhibits maturation and activation (dendritic cells) • Inhibits differentiation (monocytes) |
•Seeboth et al., 2012 •Hymery et al., 2009 •Chikina et al., 2020 •Hymery et al., 2006 |
| Deoxynivalenol | • Induces release of cytokines (macrophages/neutrophils/epithelial cells) • Induces apoptosis (macrophages/neutrophils) • Reduces chemotactic response (neutrophils) • Reduces TEER and tight junction protein expression (epithelial cells) • Induces Th17 immune response (epithelial cells) • Induces colitis-like symptoms in rats |
•He et al., 2013 •Moon and Pestka, 2002 •Chung et al., 2003 •Islam et al., 2006 •Marzocco et al., 2009 •Sugiyama et al., 2016 •Gauthier et al., 2013 •Pinton et al., 2010 •Cano et al., 2013 •Payros et al., 2020 |
| Patulin | • Inhibits expression and secretion of cytokines (macrophages) • Inhibits intracellular killing of fungi (macrophages) • Induces apoptosis (macrophages/epithelial cells) • Inhibits NO production (macrophages) • Induces mitochondrial dysfunction and mitophagy (macrophages) • Reduces TEER (epithelial cells) • Inhibits expression of ZO-1 (epithelial cells) • Inhibits ZO-1 and claudin-4 production (epithelial cells) |
•Oh et al., 2015 •Bourdiol et al., 1990 •Tsai et al., 2016 •Luft et al., 2008 •Assunção et al., 2016 •Kawauchiya et al., 2011 |
| Zearalenone | • Induces inflammatory cytokines (macrophages/epithelial cells) • Inhibits protein/DNA synthesis (epithelial cells) • Induces apoptosis (macrophages/epithelial cells) • Activates inflammasome (epithelial cells) • Induces colitis-like symptoms in mice |
•Abid-Essefi et al., 2003 •Kouadio et al., 2005 •Pestka and Zhou, 2006 •Fan et al., 2017 •Fan et al., 2018 |
| Candidalysin | • Induces NLRP3 inflammasome activation (macrophages) • Damages plasma membranes (epithelial cells) • Induces release of cytokines (epithelial cells/neutrophils/macrophages) • Induces calcium influx (epithelial cells) • Induces EGFR activation (epithelial cells) |
•Kasper et al., 2018 •Verma et al., 2017 •Moyes et al., 2016 •Ho et al., 2019 |
| Mucoricin | • Inhibits protein synthesis (N-glycosylase activity) • Induces hypovolemic shock in mice • Causes apoptosis and necrosis (murine lung and liver tissue) |
•Soliman et al., 2021 |