Table 5.

Models of Carotid Remodeling^*

Model	Animal	Insight	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference*
Aortic banding	Mouse	Carotid remodeling results from changes in pulsatile pressure and turbulent blood flow Hypertensive model	Provides a correlative and mathematical analysis of the effects of pulsatile pressure There is less neointimal formation	Data obtained in mice cannot be easily extrapolated to humans because of differences in cardiac output and function	140
Adventitial FeCl3 and CaCl2	Rat, mouse	External application to the vessel wall Induces remodeling with significant inflammation	Technically easy Remodeling is mediated by inflammation	Thrombus formation occurs and influences vessel remodeling Severe injury model	141
Arteriovenous fistula	Rat, mouse, rabbit	EC-mediated response to high shear stress	Large adaptive outward remodeling	Stenosis development and reduced long-term vessel patency	142
Balloon angioplasty	Rat, pig, rabbit	EC denudation induces significantly enhanced VSMC proliferation and dynamic ECM remodeling	VSMC signaling response and neointimal hyperplasia are consistent Rat models are well developed and characterized	Not technically reproducible Balloon injury in mouse carotids is difficult	143
Complete carotid ligation	Mouse	Primarily VSMC-mediated remodeling Extent of remodeling is determined by length of blood flow cessation	Highly reproducible Technically easy to perform Phenotype primarily governed by blood flow cessation and not surgical manipulation	Thrombus formation can occur and influence vessel remodeling beyond blood flow cessation	144
Partial carotid ligation	Rat, mouse, rabbit	Primarily VSMC-mediated remodeling Extent of remodeling is determined by both percent reduction and length of blood flow cessation	Highly reproducible Preferable to complete ligation to study physiological remodeling in response to low blood flow Inward and outward remodeling is genetically determined Less likelihood of thrombus and vessel occlusion	Rats and rabbits form less neointimal hyperplasia and remodeling relative to mice Anatomic variation among mouse strains can affect blood flow reduction after ligation	144, 145
Photochemical exposure	Rat, mouse	Internal application causes endothelium injury Induces remodeling with significant inflammation	Remodeling is specifically mediated by inflammation More subtle injury compared with FeCl3 and CaCl2	Severe injury model	146
Wire injury	Rat, mouse, rabbit	Remodeling is a result of EC denudation Neointimal formation ceases after re-endovascularization	Re-endovascularization occurs symmetrically after EC denudation	Technically challenging Thrombus formation and subsequent lesion development are common	147

EC indicates endothelial cell; ECM, extracellular matrix; and VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cell.

^*Only representative references are provided.