Table 3.

Review of Nighttime Human Activities, Categories, and Use of Prevention Measures (Adapted from Monroe et al [34])

Location and References	Methods Used to Record Nighttime Activities	Nighttime Activities Identified and Prevention Methods Adopted	Nighttime Activity Categories
Cambodia, Rattanakiri Province: Gryseels et al (2015) [19]; Durnez et al (2018) [62] Stung Treng: Sanann et al (2019) [121]	A first visit, in the evenings between 1900 and 2100 h depending on the availability of the household, consisted of the observation of housing structures, people’s resting behavior, bed net characteristics, and topical repellent use of all household members; as actual bed net use at night might not be directly observed, bed nets that were suspended in the evenings before bedtime with ≥2 corners were considered ready for use	Basket weaving, collecting water and firewood, tending to cattle, watching television, being bitten by mosquitoes when urinating and defecating at night or in the early morning (Gryseels et al [19]); hunting, forest work between 0400 and 0800 h and between 1900 and 2300 h, socializing with alcohol consumption in the evening; mosquito coils at night; lighting a fire and mosquito coils (Sanann et al [121]); people use smoke from fires or from cigarettes outdoors during these evening biting hours to decrease mosquito nuisance;   when visiting villages, young people assemble outside at sunset for evening activities (eg, playing volleyball or cards, watching television)	Livelihood activities Recreational activities
Yunnan Province, China: Xu et al (2015) [122]	Questionnaire data on demographics and potential risk factors, including housing condition, local ecology, socioeconomic status, behavior, occupation, activities, travel, malaria awareness and knowledge, and use of malaria prevention measures at both subjects’ home in Yunnan and the locations where they had stayed 1 mo before the date of malaria attack in case patients (retrospective case-control study)	Stayed overnight in Myanmar within 1 mo of the malaria episode and significant associations with lumbering, housing conditions (shelter hits, houses), antimosquito measures, hill zone, proximity to breeding sites, and nearby vegetation	Livelihood activities
Kudat District, Sabah, Malaysia: Barber et al 2013 [47]; Chua et al (2019) [48]; Grigg et al (2017) [30]	Questionnaire data on demographics, behavior, and residential malaria risk factors in a case-control, prospective clinical study	Overnight travel and sleeping outside in the forest or plantation; sleeping under a bed net	Recreational activities; livelihood activities
Ubon Ratchathani Province, Thailand: Lyttlelton (2016) [123]	Qualitative data collection and interviews in malaria outbreak districts covering past and present livelihoods, experience with malaria and programs to alleviate this, and rosewood collection	Overnighting in a national park and forest adjoining Laos and Cambodia in search of endangered tree timber; rosewood secreted through the forest at night to a border crossing with Laos; staying for a week in the forest moving by night and resting by day	Nighttime forest missions undertaken by the poor who have skills in finding, harvesting and portering rosewood.
Tak Province, Thailand: Edwards et al (2019) [44]; Parker et al (2015) [124]	Mixed methods comprising cross-sectional behavior and bed net survey, transect walks observational and entomological collections in villages, hamlets, and forested farm huts.	Slept in the farm huts/forest and bed nets overnight; bathing, exercise/football, cycling/walking, driving motorbike, children playing, smoking, border patrol, conversing/on phone, alcohol drinking, eating, cooking, collecting crickets wood chopping, feeding animals, working, shopping.; most rural villages in area follow a basic calendar revolving around rice paddy cultivation and several other crops (Shoklo Malaria Research Unit [2016] [125]); majority used repellents, followed by wearing of long clothing	Recreational activities Livelihood activities
Khanh Vinh District, Khanh Hoa Province, Vietnam: Edwards et al (2019) [45]; X. N. Xuan (unpublished report) Bac Ai and Ninh Son districts, Ninh Thuan Province: Grietens et al (2012) [126]	Mixed methods comprising (1) cross-sectional behavior and net survey, transect walks, and observational and entomological collections in 3 ecotypes; (2) integration of qualitative data from focused ethnography and quantitative data collected during a large-scale cross-sectional survey for a LLIHN trial (2005–2006)	Slept in farm huts/forest with bed nets or LLIHNs overnight; bathing, listening to radio, conversing, alcohol drinking, eating, cooking, working, walking, other activities Farming (rainy season), hunting, gathering forest products, logging (dry season), entailing overnight stays in rain forest Watching television, singing karaoke, drinking at small bars Approximately half (52%) and 92% slept by 1900 and 2100 h, respectively Irregular forest overnights: almost exclusively farming during rainy season, while other activities (hunting, gathering forest products, logging) are carried out mostly in the dry season, entailing overnights deep in the rain forest.	Recreational activities Livelihood activities Leisure activities Livelihood activities
Xieng-Ngeun and Nane districts, Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR: Tangena et al 2017 [42]	Mixed methods: triangulating qualitative data from focused ethnography and quantitative data collected during a large-scale cross-sectional survey carried out in the framework of the LLIHN trial Adult mosquito collections in secondary forests, mature and immature rubber plantations, and villages. Rapid participatory rural appraisals and surveys for daily and monthly activities of the rubber workers and villagers.	Visiting secondary forests during rainy season, most frequently during daylight hours (0500 to 1700 h) to collect food, wood, and other commodities; occasional night visits to hunt small animals; night rubber tapping in the rainy season, between 0200 and 0700 h, and latex is collected in the morning from 0700 to 1000 h; from 1700 to 0700 h, most people were usually in the village to cook, clean, and sleep (sleeping time from 2000 h to 0500 h) High ownership (90%) of ITNs in houses; methods used for self-protection against mosquitoes when outdoors are mosquito coils (60%), DEET (35%), wearing long sleeves (7%), and applying lemongrass (2%)	Livelihood and recreational activities; 4 distinct behavioral typologies were identified: (1) villagers that visit the forest during the day, (2) villagers that work in the rubber plantations, (3) migrant workers that live and work in the rubber plantations, and (4) villagers that stay in the village
Maluku, North Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara, West Papua, Papua, Eastern Indonesia: Ipa et al (2020) [127]	Community-based survey (2018 Riset Kesehatan Dasar [Riskesdas]) describing preventive practices at individual and household levels and association with the incidence of malaria among adult (aged >15 y) populations	Used a bed net while sleeping the night before the survey; use of mosquito coils or applied electric antimosquito mats and installation of mosquito window screens (with no identification to night use)	Routine household activities
Mugil and Lemakot areas, Papua New Guinea: Rodriguez-Rodriguez (2019) [50]	Cross-sectional malaria indicator survey; in-depth interviews; focus group discussions	Sleeping times and LLIN use the previous night; use of clothing and footwear; funeral ceremonies; overnight supervision of coconut and cocoa bean drier	Livelihood activities; routine household activities; outdoor hunting and sleeping (during hot nights); recreational and religious activities; large-scale social festivals
Central Island Province, Solomon Islands Pollard et al 2020) [53]	Daily movement diaries, interviews, and direct observations	Overnight people movement: 34% of participants (n = 29) spent ≥1 night away from the village with frequent overnight travel to another village (59%) followed by a town or city (24%) and employment on ships (14%)	Overall people movement was designated as being within 1 of 4 nested categories, of increasing scale: inside the house, peridomestic area around the house (including veranda and external kitchen building), the residential village, and all areas beyond the village

Abbreviations: DEET, N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide; ITNs, insecticide-treated bed nets; LLIHN, long-lasting insecticidal hammock net; LLIN, long-lasting insecticidal net; PDR, People’s Democratic Republic.