Table 4.
Review of the Insecticide Susceptibility and Vector Behavior Based on Vector Control Measures in Selected Countriesa
| Location and References | Insecticide Susceptibility | Shifts in Species Frequency and Behavioral Shifts to Early Biting, Outdoor Feeding | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary Vector Speciesb | Secondary Vector Speciesb | ||
| Usino-Bundi, North Coast and Ramu (Madang Province), Drekikir (East Sepik Province), Lorengau (Manus Province), Papua New Guinea: Keven et al (2010) [140]; Henry-Halldin et al (2012) [141]c |
Anopheles farauti s.l., Anopheles punctulatus susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% lambda-cyhalothrin and deltamethrin LLIN (55 mg/m2) | Anopheles hinesorum susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% lambda-cyhalothrin and deltamethrin LLIN (55 mg/m2). | A. farauti s.l. developed behavioral resistance to avoid contact with DDT (Spencer et al [1974] [169]); after ITN distribution, biting cycles of both A. farauti and Anopheles koliensis shifted from a postmidnight peak to an earlier premidnight peak in a coastal village (Charlwood and Graves [1987] [132]); in coastal and inland foothills, shifts in mosquito biting to earlier hours after the first LLIN distribution (the peak exposure time to infectious bites shifted from after 2100 h in 2008 to between 1800 and 1900 h in 2011, resulting in decreased protection against mosquito bites (Reimer et al [2016] [78], Thomsen et al [2016] [134], and Rodriguez et al [2019] [51]) |
| Madang, Milne Bay, East Sepik, and East New Britain provinces, Papua New Guinea: Koimbu et al (2018) [142] |
A. farauti, A. koliensis, A. punctulatus susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% deltamethrin, 0.05% lambda-cyhalothrin, 4% DDT |
ND | |
| Western, Temotu, Central, Choiseul, Malaita, Guadalcanal provinces, Solomon Islands: Quiñones et al (2015) [143] |
A. farauti susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% deltamethrin (2014); moderate resistance to 0.05% lambda-cyhalothrin (Malaita and Central), 0.5% permethrin (Central and Guadalcanal) and 0.05% deltamethrin (Guadalcanal) |
ND | IRS in the 1960s nearly eliminated major malaria vectors A. koliensis and A. punctulatus, mainly endophagic and late-evening biters (Taylor [1975] [133]); a behavioral shift in A. farauti s.l. toward earlier feeding with a higher proportion of feeds occurring outdoors after IRS (DDT) in the 1960s–1970s (Taylor [133]) and after 1992 (Over et al [2004] [159]) |
| 5 Districts in Ubon Ratchathani Province, Thailand: Sumarnrote et al (2017) [144] Bo Rai District, Trat Province, Thailand: Pimnon and Bhumiratana (2018) [118] Country-wide site selections, Thailand: Van Bortel et al (2008) [145] |
Anopheles dirus s.l., Anopheles maculatus s.l.. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% deltamethrin (insufficient numbers) A. dirus s.l. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% deltamethrin and 0.9% bifenthrin (insufficient numbers) Anopheles epiroticus, Anopheles minimus s.l. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.75% permethrin; A. epiroticus susceptible to 4% DDT (insufficient numbers) |
Anopheles barbirostris s.l. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.05% deltamethrin, resistant to 4% DDT; Anopheles nivipes, Anopheles philippinensis susceptible to 4% DDT, 0.05% deltamethrin, and 0.75% permethrin; PBO increased mortality rate with deltamethrin and permethrin in pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles hyrcanus s.l.; none of the sequenced specimens showed kdr gene1014F or L1014S mutation Anopheles campestris resistant to 0.05% deltamethrin and tolerant to 0.09% bifenthrin Anopheles scanloni susceptible to 4% DDT and 0.75% permethrin |
IRS resulted in a higher proportional decrease of A. dirus s.l. as compared with A. minimus s.l. (Ismail et al; [1975] [113] and Pimnon and Bhumiratana [118]). Widespread use of IRS resulted in modified behavior of Anopheles minimus s.l. (Nustsathapana et al [1986] [113]), which might reflect a species shift from A. minimus to Anopheles harrisoni, as also observed in Vietnam, the result of widespread ITN use (Garros et al [2005] [158] and Edwards et al [2019] [45]) Bifenthrin IRS did not reduce indoor densities relative to outdoor A. campestris, except at 6 mo after IRS (Pimnon and Bhumiratana [118]) |
| 3 sites, Cambodia: Van Bortel et al (2008) [145] |
A. dirus s.l., A. minimus s.l. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.75% permethrin; suspected resistance to 4% DDT (insufficient numbers); A. epiroticus susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.75% permethrin; possible resistance to 0.05% deltamethrin. |
Before widespread ITN use, 29% of the bites occurred before sleeping time in villages and forest plots [40] | |
| Vietnam: Van Bortel et al (2008) [145] | A. dirus s.l. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.75% permethrin; possible resistance to 0.05% alpha-cypermethrin; 1 A. dirus. population and 5 A. minimus s.l. populations resistant to lambda-cyhalothrin, 3 of 6 A. minimus populations with possible resistance to 0.5% etofenprox | Widespread ITN use associated with a species shift from predominately A. minimus to A. harrisoni (Garros et al [158]), and disappearance of A. minimus in Khanh Phu Commune (Marchand, personal communication, March 6, 2019) | |
| Lao PDR: Van Bortel et al (2008) [145]; Marcombe et al (2018) [146] |
A. minimus s.l. susceptible (phenotypic) to 0.75% permethrin (insufficient numbers); no resistance to pyrethroids was detected; A. dirus s.l., A. minimus s.l. and A. maculatus s.l. with suspected resistance to 0.75% permethrin in Phongsaly and Luang Prabang provinces; suspected resistance to 45 DDT from Saravane and Attapeu provinces |
A. nivipes and A. philippinensis with no resistance to pyrethroids and high resistance to 4% DDT in Khammouane Province | ND |
| China: Cui et al 2006 [147]; Suman et al (2013) [148]; Chang et al (2014) [149]; Fang et al (2019) [150]; Chen et al (2019) [151] | Anopheles sinensis with low to moderate resistance (genotypic) to permethrin and deltamethrin; confirmed resistance to DDT and malathion from the malaria-endemic areas | ITN use decreased the endophilic and anthropophilic Anopheles lesteri (Anopheles anthropophagus) and A. minimus s.l. compared with the more exophagic/zoophilic A. sinensis |
Abbreviations: IRS, indoor residual spray; ITN, insecticide-treated bed net; LLIN, long-lasting insecticidal net; ND, not done; PBO, piperonyl butoxide; PDR, People’s Democratic Republic; s.l., sensu lato.
aUnpublished reports can accessed using the World Health Organization interactive mapping tool (https://www.who.int/malaria/news/2017/malaria-threats-map/en/).
bNoted that “s.l.” is added to the species name when referring to the species complex (A. minimus s.l., A. dirus s.l.). In the absence of s.l., the species (taxon) is indicated (eg, A. minimus, A. dirus).
cIncluding Manus, Morobe, West Sepik, and Western Highlands provinces.