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. 2021 Apr 16;8:653655. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2021.653655

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Cellular sources of PAI-1 of modulators of synthesis: (A) PAI-1 is produced by a variety of cell types including the following: endothelial cells, adipocytes, hepatocytes, leukocytes (monocytes and macrophages), megakaryocytes, and platelets. Dotted arrows demonstrated cell differentiation and solid arrows indicate PAI-1 synthesis. (B) A number of factors induce PAI-1 synthesis and secretion. Proinflammatory cytokines, namely interleukin-6 (IL-6), tissue necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) significantly augment PAI-1 synthesis. Thrombin, insulin, glucose, angiotensin II, and C-reactive protein (CRP) can also stimulate PAI-1 expression. Drugs that target insulin and the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), such as metformin and captopril, are known to decrease plasma PAI-1 concentration. Dotted arrows represent the reaction of an enzyme or protein synthesis, and solid arrows indicate PAI-1 synthesis.