TABLE 2.

Antiviral mechanisms of cardiac glycosides.

Viruses	Cardiac glycosides	Antiviral mechanism	References
Enveloped respiratory viruses
Influenza A	Ouabain, Adenium obesum	Inhibit viral replication	Amarelle et al. (2017) Kiyohara et al. (2012)
Human respiratory syncytial virus	Ouabain	Inhibits viral entry	Lingemann et al. (2019)
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus	Ouabain, Bufalin	Inhibit early entry stage	Burkard et al. (2015)
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2	Digoxin, Ouabain	Inhibit viral replication	Cho et al. (2020)
Non-enveloped respiratory viruses
Adenovirus	Digoxin, lanatoside C, ouabain, digitoxigenin, digitoxin	Alter RNA splicing, virucidal effect, RNA tranition	Stoilov et al. (2008) Grosso et al. (2017)
Rhinovirus A	Scillarenin 3-O-[N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-hydrazido] suberoyl)	Inhibit RNA synthesis, virucidal effect	Sato and Muro (1974) Kamano et al. (1988)