Table 2.
Comparisons Between Differences between Automated Identification System (AI) and Human Examiners and between Human Examiners. Values Are Point-to-Point Errors in Millimeter Units. More Accurate Results Are Marked with a √ Symbol
| Detection Error from AI |
Difference Between Human Examiners |
Mean Difference | More Accurate Result from |
|||||||||
| Landmarka |
Mean |
SD |
Min |
Max |
Mean |
SD |
Min |
Max |
Between AI and Human Examiner |
AI |
Human Examiner |
P-Valueb |
| Sella | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.0 | 10.9 | 1.3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 3.5 | −0.6 | √ | <.0001 | |
| Nasion | 1.4 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 12.6 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 5.6 | 0.3 | .1037 | ||
| Nasal tip | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 6.0 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 3.1 | 0.5 | √ | <.0001 | |
| Porion | 1.7 | 1.4 | 0.0 | 13.1 | 2.1 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 8.9 | −0.4 | √ | .0157 | |
| Orbitale | 1.4 | 0.9 | 0.0 | 7.5 | 1.7 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 9.2 | −0.3 | .0886 | ||
| Anterior nasal spine | 2.3 | 1.9 | 0.1 | 17.5 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 0.2 | 10.0 | 0.3 | 1.0000 | ||
| Posterior nasal spine | 1.4 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 9.2 | 1.8 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 7.6 | −0.4 | √ | .0038 | |
| Point A | 2.2 | 1.5 | 0.1 | 8.9 | 2.2 | 1.5 | 0.1 | 7.7 | 0.0 | 1.0000 | ||
| U1 root tip | 2.8 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 10.2 | 1.8 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 7.0 | 1.0 | √ | <.0001 | |
| U1 incisal edge | 1.2 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 3.6 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 2.8 | 0.7 | √ | <.0001 | |
| L1 incisal edge | 1.1 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 4.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 4.0 | 0.6 | √ | <.0001 | |
| L1 root tip | 3.2 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 10.2 | 2.0 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 7.9 | 1.2 | √ | <.0001 | |
| Point B | 3.3 | 2.0 | 0.1 | 10.3 | 3.9 | 2.2 | 0.1 | 11.0 | −0.6 | √ | .0264 | |
| Protuberance menti | 2.0 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 10.3 | 2.6 | 1.7 | 0.2 | 11.9 | −0.6 | √ | .0063 | |
| Pogonion | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 11.3 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 8.4 | −0.3 | .9907 | ||
| Gnathion | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 5.4 | 1.2 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 4.6 | 0.1 | 1.0000 | ||
| Menton | 1.3 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 6.7 | 1.2 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 4.8 | 0.1 | 1.0000 | ||
| Gonion, constructed | 2.9 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 16.1 | 2.9 | 1.9 | 0.5 | 13.4 | 0.0 | 1.0000 | ||
| Gonion, anatomic | 2.2 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 11.1 | 2.8 | 2.0 | 0.2 | 13.1 | −0.6 | √ | .0237 | |
| Articulare | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 4.2 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 5.1 | −0.2 | .3024 | ||
| Condylion | 1.9 | 1.5 | 0.2 | 15.6 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 8.1 | 0.1 | 1.0000 | ||
| Pterygoid | 2.1 | 5.8 | 0.0 | 96.9 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 10.1 | −0.3 | 1.0000 | ||
| Basion | 2.0 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 10.3 | 1.4 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 6.9 | 0.6 | √ | <.0001 | |
| Glabella | 2.1 | 4.1 | 0.1 | 65.4 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 0.2 | 11.6 | 0.3 | 1.0000 | ||
| nasion | 1.8 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 7.5 | 1.8 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 6.8 | 0.0 | 1.0000 | ||
| supranasal tip | 1.8 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 18.4 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 5.5 | 0.3 | 1.0000 | ||
| pronasale | 1.2 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 11.0 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 3.9 | 0.3 | √ | .0037 | |
| columella | 1.4 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 9.7 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 6.5 | −0.1 | 1.0000 | ||
| subnasale | 1.2 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 4.0 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 3.6 | 0.3 | √ | .0033 | |
| point A | 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 5.9 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 4.1 | 0.6 | √ | <.0001 | |
| superior labial sulcus | 2.0 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 9.3 | 2.5 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 8.5 | −0.5 | √ | .0074 | |
| labiale superius | 1.5 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 6.9 | 1.6 | 1.2 | 0.1 | 6.5 | −0.1 | 1.0000 | ||
| upper lip | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.0 | 9.6 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 4.3 | 0.0 | 1.0000 | ||
| stomion superius | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.1 | 6.3 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 8.3 | 0.5 | √ | .0002 | |
| stomion inferius | 1.8 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 14.7 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 15.9 | 0.3 | 1.0000 | ||
| lower lip | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 5.0 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 2.7 | 0.2 | √ | .0022 | |
| labiale inferius | 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 5.9 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 7.5 | 0.0 | 1.0000 | ||
| point B | 1.4 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 12.3 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 5.6 | 0.3 | √ | .0438 | |
| protuberance menti | 1.7 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 9.6 | 2.1 | 1.4 | 0.2 | 9.0 | −0.4 | .0896 | ||
| pogonion | 1.7 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 16.8 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 11.5 | −0.6 | √ | .0197 | |
| gnathion | 2.7 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 19.1 | 3.4 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 14.9 | −0.7 | √ | .0307 | |
| menton | 1.9 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 11.0 | 1.9 | 1.5 | 0.2 | 10.6 | 0.0 | 1.0000 | ||
a
The landmarks and data included in this table were chosen to concisely describe the results. Uppercase letters were used to indicate skeletal landmarks, and lowercase letters were used to indicate soft tissue landmarks.
b
Results from t-tests with Bonferroni correction. AI, automatic identification of cephalometric landmarks based on a deep learning method (YOLOv3). SD indicates standard deviation; Min, minimum; and Max, maximum.