Fig. 4.

Effects of sugars, ethanol, bile acids, and emulsifiers on the intestinal barrier. Note the effects of glucose on AJ proteins and bacteria, fructose reduces the intracellular ATP, and ethanol alters the bacteria and directly damages the epithelial cells. Note how bile acids affect signaling pathways and emulsifiers exert their effect on TJ proteins. AJ, adherens junction; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; BA, bile acid; FXR, farnesoid X receptor; GLUT5, glucose transporter 5; SGLT1, sodium-glucose linked transporter 1; TGR5, Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5; TJ, tight junction. One-sided arrow shows activation.