Table 2.
Proposed mechanisms of the effects of diet on permeability
| Nutrient | Effect on Permeability | Proposed Mechanisms |
|---|---|---|
| SCFAs | ↓ | ↑ATP, Treg regulation, cytokine production, HIF-1 regulation, relocation of ZO-1, and occludin |
| Vitamin D | ↓ | Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity, ↑Ezrin, altered villous morphology |
| Vitamin A | ↓ | ↑ Mucus and defensin production, ↑TLRs |
| Zinc | ↓ | ↓Phosphorylated occludin and claudin-1, ↑claudin-2 |
| Anthocyanins | ↓ | ↑ GLP-2 and MUC-2 |
| Cysteine | ↓ | ↑ GSH |
| Methionine | ↓ | ↑Occludin, ZO-1 and claudin-3 |
| Glutamine | ↓ | ↑ATP, ↑ERK1/2, and JNK, growth factors EGF, TGF, and IGF-1 pathways |
| Tryptophan | ↓ | AHR and PXR pathways |
| Arginine | ↓ | NOS pathway |
| Gluten | ↑ | Binding to CXCR3 |
| Glucose | ↑ | Altering AJ proteins |
| Fructose | ↑ | ↓ATP |
| Bile acids | ↑ | TGR5 and FXR pathways |
| Fat | ↑ | Change the microbiota composition |
| Ethanol | ↑ | Direct damage to epithelia, altering TJ proteins |
| Emulsifiers | ↑ | Change the microbiota composition |
↓, Decrease; ↑, Increase; AJ, adherens junction; AHR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; CXCR3, chemokine receptor CXCR3; EGF, epithelial growth factor; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase; FXR, Farnesoid X receptor; GLP-2, glucagon-like peptide-2; GSH, glutathione; HIF-1, hypoxia-inducible factor-1; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor; JNK, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinases; MUC-2, gene coding for mucin-2 protein; NOS, nitric oxide synthase; PXR, pregnane X receptor; SCFA, short-chain fatty acid; TGF, transforming growth factor; TGR5, Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5; TJ, tight junction; TLR, Toll-like receptor; Treg, regulatory T cells; ZO, zonula occludens.