Table 6.
Baculoviruses in VLP Production and Vaccines
| VLP Produced | Model | Description | Results | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human astrovirus | Sf9 cells | Single infection of BEVS expressing ORF2 protein | ORF2 expression leads to VLP production | [115] |
| Coxsackievirus B (CVB3) | Mice | Co-expression of VLP, P1 and 3CD protease using rBVs | Elicited virus-specific nAbs and protection when rechallenged indicating humoral immunity. | [116] |
| Chikungunya virus | Mice | Single infection of VLPs generated in rBVs. | Elicited nAbs and complete protection when rechallenged. | [117] |
| Ebola virus | Mice | Used rBVs to generate Ebola VLPs expressing glycoprotein, VP40 matrix protein and nucleoprotein | Mice vaccinated with the resultant VLPs elicited a similar immune response as seen in an effective vaccine in human 293T embryonic kidney cells, preventing filoviral infection. | [94,95] |
| Encephalomyocarditis virus | Human & Murine cell lines | Mammalian cells were infected with baculovirus to determine the antiviral response | Baculoviruses were able to stimulate an antiviral response, specifically IFN production, protecting the mice from encephalomyocarditis | [90] |
| Enterovirus 71 (Bac-P1-3CD) | Mice | Constructed BEVS expressing EV71-P1 protein and 3CD protease | Induced a potent antibody response neutralizing EV71 strains | [118] |
| Foot-and-mouth disease virus | Cattle | Generated a rBV encoding P1-2A-3C | Immunized cattle developed specific neutralizing antibodies and the vaccine had a potency value of 5.01 | [119] |
| HCV | Human hepatoma cell lines | Inserted BIMS, a potent inducer of apoptosis, into a rBV | Resulted in selective death of HCV replicon cells | [102] |
| NNC#2 cells | A baculovirus-based vector-derived shRNAs to inhibit HCV core-protein expression required for gene transcription | The long-term baculovirus vector suppressed HCV core-protein expression for 14 days | [120] | |
| HIV | Sf9 lines | Generated VLPs expressing various HIV-1 epitopes like Pr55gag and gp120 derived 94UG018 HIV-1A isolate using baculoviruses | A potential method to generate an effective VLP that elicits an immune response and confers immunity | [93] |
| IBDV | Chickens | Used BEVS to express VP2, VPX, and PP | Following intramuscular injection antibodies were detected and the rechallenged chickens had a 100% survival rate | [121] |
| Influenza | Humans (approved) | Injected 2344 individuals with FluBlok, 45 mcg of baculovirus-expressed seasonal trivalent influence virus hemagglutinin (rHA0) vaccine | Hemagglutination-inhibition antibody responses were seen with a 44.66% efficiency of preventing culture-confirmed influenza illness and induced antibody responses in most individuals | [122] |
| Malaria | BALB/c mice | Constructed a rBV and dual expression system encoding to upregulate IFN responses | Showed complete protection 7 days following administration and eliminated liver-stage parasites | [123] |
| Marburg virus | Mice | Used rBVs to generate Marburg VLPs expressing glycoprotein, VP40 matrix protein and nucleoprotein | Mice vaccinated with the resultant VLPs elicited a similar immune response as seen in an effective vaccine in human 293T embryonic kidney cells, preventing filoviral infection | [95] |
| Norovirus & Rotavirus | BALB/c mice | BEVS expressing both norovirus VLPs and human recombinant VP6 (rVP6) | Elicited a strong systemic cross-reaction, cross-blocking specific antibody and adjuvant effect | [124] |
| Norwalk virus | 98 humans (Phase I) | BEVS were used to generate VP1 capsid for injection | A specific IgA response was found in 70% of patients following a double injection | [125] |
| Papillomavirus (Cervarix) | Humans (approved) | Used BEVS to express HPV L1 protein | Effectively protects individuals for 5.5 years against HPV 16 and 18 | [11] |
| Parvovirus B19 (VAI-VP705) | 43 humans (Phase II/III) | Used BEVS to generate parvovirus recombinant capsid and MF59 adjuvant | The double infection elicited strong neutralizing antibodies to parvovirus B19 | [126] |
| Poliovirus | Sf9 cells | Coinfection of BEVS expressing VP0, VP1 and VP3 | Generated VLPs resembling wild-type poliovirus procapsids | [127] |
| Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) | Sf9 cells | Co-expression of aminoterminal and carboxyterminal glycoproteins with the nucleocapsid protein under the polyhedrin promoter control | Generated VLPs for potential RVFV research and vaccines. | [128] |
| Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) | Insect cells | RSV group antigen protein based VLPs were inserted into silkworm larvae | Established a stably expressing insect cell line generating VLPs from RSV | [97] |
| SARS CoV | Human (Phase I) | Incorporated the SARS CoV spike, membrane and envelope proteins (VLPs) into a recombinant baculovirus | The engineered VLPs resembled wild-type SARS essential for vaccine development | [92] |
| Sudan virus | EBOV nonhuman primate | VLPs consisting of SUDV glycoprotein, nucleoprotein, and VP40 matrix protein were injected into macaques | 1–2 doses of the VLP conferred protection against the Sudan virus | [94] |
| SV40 | Sf9 cells | BEVS expressing VP1-3 | BEVS expressing VP1 generated indistinguishable VLPs from wild-type SV40 | [129] |
Abbreviations: BEVS, baculovirus expression vector system; rBVs, recombinant baculovirus; VLP, virus-like particle; nAbs, neutralizing antibodies; VP, virus protein; IFN, interferon type 1; HPV, human papillomavirus.