Fig. 6.

Modify scaffolds with natural bone inorganic components. a) Chemical composition of HA in natural bone. M represents the cationic substitutions, while X and Y represent the anionic substitutions. These chemical groups are formed to meet the body's needs during growth and play essential roles in maintaining bone homeostasis and direct the bone cells' functions. b) Approaches for modifying crystallization on BTE scaffolds' surface. 1) Introduce nucleation sites on the surface followed by incubation in simulated body fluid; 2) Alternative exposure to Ca²⁺ and PO₄³⁻ solutions; 3) Seeding osteogenic lineages on scaffold surface to secrete mineralized ECM followed by decellularization. This Fig. was adopted from Refs. [37,262].