Table 1.

Empirical quantitative studies on psychological stress as a function of chronic environmental contamination, selected through the systematic review.

Publication	Contamination event/source	Region	Study design	Independent variable (s)	Dependent variable (s)	Risk of bias	n	r
Behbod et al. (2014)	Tert-butyl mercaptan exposure, tank leak	Prichard, AL, US	Cross-sectional	Distance	General stress	Low	204	0.24
Bevc et al. (2007)^b	Landfill/waste site	Ft. Lauderdale, FL, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	Depression,	Low	223	0.230
Bevc et al. (2007)^b	Landfill/waste site	Ft. Lauderdale, FL, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	PTSD	Low		.26
Cline et al. (2014)	Asbestos exposure, industrial activity	Libby, MT, US	Cross-sectional	Proxy measure	General stress	High	208	0.39
Couch and Mercuri (2007)^b	Benzene exposure from industrial activity	Houston, TX, US	Case-control	Objective	General stress	Low	341	0.580
							550	.430
							386	.340
							405	.31
Cutchin et al. (2008)	Industrial activity and refinery explosion	Texas City, TX, US	Before-and-after	Distance	General stress	Low	315	0.15
Downey and Van Willigen (2005)^b	Proximity to chronic industrial activity	Chicago & neighboring counties in IL, US	Cross-sectional	Objective	General stress	Low	1210	0.230
					General stress			.190
					Depression			.11
Elliott et al. (1997)^a	Landfill	Milton, ON, CA	Before-and-after			High
Elliott et al. 2018	Proximity to unconventional oil & gas wells	Belmont County, OH, US	Cross-sectional	Objective	General stress	Low	66	0.16
Fitzgerald et al. (2008)	Polychlorinated biphenyl exposure, water, industrial activity	Hudson River Area, NY, US	Cross-sectional	Objective	Depression	Low	243	0.16
Fortenberry et al. (2018)^a	Lead exposure, water	Flint, MI, US	Cross-sectional			High
Ginsberg et al. (2012)	Chlorine exposure, railway accident	Graniteville, SC, US	Cross-sectional	Health	PTSD	Low	225	0.45
Grasmück and Scholz (2005)	Heavy metal exposure, soil, industrial activity	Dornach, Switzerland	Case-control	Subjective	General stress	High	57	0.63
Greve et al. (2005)^b	Toxic waste cloud, railway accident	Eunice, LA, US	Case-control	Objective	General stress	Low	78	0.370
					Depression			.370
					PTSD			.37
Greve et al. (2007)^b	Toxic waste cloud, railway accident	Eunice, LA, US	Case-control	Objective	Anxiety	Low	51	.17^c
					General Stress			.30^c
					PTSD			.34^c
					Anxiety		51	.36^d
					Depression			.18^d
Ha et al. (2018)^b	Heavy traffic roads contaminated by radiation	Seoul, South Korea	Cross-sectional	Subjective	Anxiety	Low	8826	0.220
Ha et al. (2018)^b	Heavy traffic roads contaminated by radiation	Seoul, South Korea	Cross-sectional	Subjective	General stress	Low		.19
Hastrup et al. (2007)^b	Hazardous dumping, historic industrial activity	Anonymous	Case-control	Objective	General stress	Low	290	0.280
		Appalachian			General stress			.340
		Community			Depression			.47
Korol et al. (1999)	Nuclear waste, government activities	Fernald, OH, US	Cross-sectional	Distance	PTSD	High	91	0.54
Kruger et al. (2017a)	Lead exposure, water	Flint, MI, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	PTSD	High	786	0.25
Kruger et al. (2017b)^b	Lead exposure, water	Flint, MI, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	General stress	High	834	0.250
Kruger et al. (2017b)^b	Lead exposure, water	Flint, MI, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	General stress	High		.16
Kruger et al. (2017c)	Lead exposure, water	Flint, MI, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	General stress	High	277	0.22
Levy et al. (2004)^a	Environmental exposures, public housing	Boston, MA, US	Cross-sectional			High
Matthies et al. (2000)^b	Benzo(a)pyrene exposure, soil, industrial activity	Dortmund-Dorstfeld, Germany	Case-control	Subjective	General stress	Low	152	0.460
Matthies et al. (2000)^b	Benzo(a)pyrene exposure, soil, industrial activity	Dortmund-Dorstfeld, Germany	Case-control	Objective	General stress	Low	415	.17
McCarron et al. (2000)^b	Landfill, chromium waste	Glasgow, Scotland	Case-control	Health	General stress	Low	398	0.080
				Objective			798	.001
McComas and Trumbo (2001)^a	Landfills, chronic industrial activity	Various communities, NY State, US	Cross-sectional			High
McIntyre et al. (2018)	Chronic industrial activity	Various communities, Australia	Cross-sectional	Distance	General stress	Low	2009	0.03
Peek et al. (2009)^b	Chronic industrial activity	Texas City, TX, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	General stress	Low	2604	0.060
Peek et al. (2009)^b	Chronic industrial activity	Texas City, TX, US	Cross-sectional	Subjective	Depression	Low		.13
Rehner et al. (2000)	Methyl parathion exposure, pesticide use	Jackson County, MS, US	Follow-up cohort	Time	Depression	Low	115	0.25
Reif et al. (2003)^a	Trichloroethylene exposure, water	Denver, CO, US	Cross-sectional			Low
Sansom et al. (2017)	Waste sites and industrial activity	Houston, TX, US	Cross-sectional	Time	General stress	High	109	0.08
Santiago-Rivera et al. (2007)	Polychlorinated biphenyl exposure, water	Akwasasne Mohawk reservation, NY, US	Cross-sectional	Objective	General stress	Low	353	0.18
Schade et al. (2015)^a	4-methylcyclohexane methanol exposure, solvent spill	Charleston, WV, US	Retrospective follow-up			High
Schade et al. (2016)	4-methylcyclohexane methanol exposure, solvent spill	Charleston, WV, US	Retrospective follow-up	Health	General stress	High	489	0.47
Song et al. (2018)^a	Hydrogen fluoride exposure, spill/transport accident	Gumi, South Korea	Cross-sectional			Low
Ushijima et al. (2004)	Methylmercury exposure, water, industrial activity	Minamata City, Japan	Follow-up cohort	Health	General stress	High	133	0.47
Vandermoere (2006)	Heavy metal exposure, soil, industrial activity	Kouterwijk, Belgium	Cross-sectional	Subjective	General stress	High	98	0.38
Vandermoere (2008)^b	Heavy metal exposure, soil, industrial activity	Kouterwijk, Belgium	Case-control	Objective	General stress	High	300	0.420
					General stress		300	.190
					Anxiety			.11
Verschuur et al. (2007)^b	Rumored uranium exposure, airplane accident	Amsterdam, Netherlands	Before-and-after	Health	General stress	High	1074	0.260
					General stress		1074	.390
					Anxiety			.340
					PTSD			.36
Verschuur et al. (2008)^b	Rumored uranium exposure, airplane accident	Amsterdam, Netherlands	Follow-up cohort	Health	Anxiety	High	168	0.120
					General Stress			.040
					PTSD			.09
Weinert et al. (2011)^b	Asbestos exposure, industrial activity	Libby, MT, US	Cross-sectional	Distance	General stress	High	386	0.090
Weinert et al. (2011)^b	Asbestos exposure, industrial activity	Libby, MT, US	Cross-sectional	Distance	Depression	High		.03
Whiteman et al. (1995)^a	Lead/chemical exposure, mining and industry	Kinston, Australia	Follow-up cohort			High
Zierold et al. (2004)	Arsenic exposure, water	Sinnipee/St. Peter, WI, US	Cross-sectional	Objective	Depression	High	1185	0.38
					k = 60		N = 25,858	r = 0.26

Studies not included in the meta-analysis.

Includes multiple effects from the same participants.

Effects from child participants.

Effects for parents of child participants.