Table 1.
Sulfated polysaccharide from different sources and their mode of virus inhibition.
| S.No | Name of the Polysaccharide and Organism | Sources | Virus Inhibition mechanism | Type of Virus | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Carrageenan Acanthophora specifira Hydroclathrus clathratus |
Marine red alga Brown alga |
Inhibition of propagation | Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Rift valley fever virus (RVFV) | [104] |
| 2 | Grateloupia filicina | Marine macroalga | Inhibition of viral entry | Avian Influenza Virus (H9N2 subtype) | [105] |
| 3 | Ascophyllan A-Fucoidan S- Fucoidan Ascophyllum nodosum Fucus vesiculosus F8190 |
Marine brown algae | Inhibition of early step of viral infection | Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-G-pseudotyped HIV-1 | [106] |
| 4 | Sulfated rhamnan Monostroma latissimum |
Marine green alga | Inhibition of invasion, replication and reduction of viral titers | Enterovirus 71 (EV71) | [107] |
| 5 | Sargassum naozhouense | Brown macroalga | Not specified | Herpes simplex virus HSV-1 strain F | [108] |
| 6 | Erylus discophorus | Marine Sponge | Prevention of viral attachment and entry | Human immunodeficiency virus HIV-1 | [109] |
| 7 | Laminaria angustata | Marine brown alga | Inhibition of virus attachment | Herpes simplex virus HSV-1 | [110] |
| 8 | Fucoidan and alginate Eisenia arborea Solieria filiformis |
Brown and red macroalga | Inhibition of virus penetration and reduction of syncytia formation | Measles virus | [111] |
| 9 | Porphyridium cruentum | Marine microalga | Inhibition of virus entry | Vaccinia virus and Vesicular stomatitis virus | [112] |
| 10 | Glucuronorhamnan Monostroma nitidum |
Green macroalga | Prevention of adsorption and blocking of the virus life cycle | Enterovirus 71 (EV71) | [113] |
| 11 |
Grateloupia indica, Scinaia hatei Gracilaria corticata Stoechospermum marginatum Cystoseira indica Caulerpa racemosa |
Red, brown and green macroalgae | Prevention of adsorption and internalization | Dengue virus (DENV) | [114] |
| 12 | Fucoidan Cladosiphon okamuranus |
Brown alga | Inhibition of syncytia formation and cell-to-cell spread of NDV | Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) | [115] |
| 13 | P-KG03 Gyrodinium impudium |
Marine red microalga | Prevention of viral adsorption and internalization | Influenza type A virus | [99] |
| 14 |
Sphaerococcus coronopifolius Boergeseniella thuyoides |
Marine red algae | Inhibition of replication | HIV and HSV-1 | [116] |
| 15 | Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate (FuCS-1) Thelenota ananas |
Sea cucumber | Blocking entry and replication | HIV strains | [117] |
| 16 | Fucans Ascophyllum nodosum Fucus vesiculosus |
Brown macroalgae | Inhibition of adsorption and blocking fusion events | Influenza A/PR/8/34 virus H1N1 virus |
[118] |
| 17 | Ulvan Enteromorpha compressa |
Green alga | Inhibition of adsorption and penetration | HSV | [119] |
| 18 | Fucoidan Sargassum swartzii |
Marine brown algae | Reverse transcriptase inhibition activity | HIV-1 | [120] |
| 19 | Xylomannan sulfate Sebdenia polydactyla |
Red macroalga | Inhibition of replication and direct virucidal activity | HSV-1 | [121] |
| 20 | Ulvan Ulva pertusa |
Marine green alga | Inhibition of infection and replication | Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) | [122] |
| 21 | Calcium spirulan Arthrospira platensis |
Marine blue-green alga | Inhibition of virus entry | HSV-1 HIV-1 |
[123] |
| 22 | Nostoflan Nostoc flagelliforme |
Blue-green alga | Inhibition of virus binding to host cells | HSV-1 and HSV-2, human cytomegalovirus, and influenza A virus | [124] |
| 23 | A1 and A2 Cochlodinium polykrikoides |
Marine red microalga | Not specified | HIV-1, influenza virus types A and B, respiratory syncytial virus types A and B | [125] |
| 24 | Mucopolysaccharide (OKU40) Dinoflagellata Sulfated polysaccharide (OKU41) Pseudomonas |
Marine algae and marine bacteria | Inhibition of virus-cell fusion and viral adsorption. Suppression of syncytium formation. Inhibition of binding of HIV-1 to cells |
HIV-1 and HIV-2 HSV-herpes simplex virus type 1, influenza virus A and B, respiratory syncytial virus and measles virus |
[126] |
| 25 | Fucoidan Dictyota bartayesiana (DD) Turbinaria decurrens |
Marine brown macroalgae | Inhibition of propagation and proliferation | HIV | [127] |
| 26 | Polyguluronate sulfate | Marine brown algae | Inhibition of protein expression and transcription | Hepatitis B virus | [128] |
| 27 | Sulfated chitosan 36S | Artificially synthesized (fungi and shrimps) | Inhibition of viral entry and adsorption | Human papillomavirus | [129] |
| 28 | Iota-Carrageenan | Red macroalga | Prevention of virus binding, entry and replication | Human rhinovirus (HRV) | [130] |
| 29 | Agarans and carrageenan Acanthophora muscoides Gracila riabirdiae Solieria filiformis |
Macroalgae | Inhibition of virus adsorption and early viral replication | HSV-1 and HSV-2 | [103] |
| 30 | λ-carrageenan | Red Macroalgae | Inhibition of virus entry during both primary and antibody-dependent infection | DENV serotypes | [131] |