Table 1.

Summary of the cited research work.

Single object manipulation and assembly in 1D
Concept	Device	Particle/cell type	References
Object trapping within nodes of standing waves	Mainly IDTs on LiNbO3, PDMS channels or Petri dishes	Microparticles, red blood cells, Escherichia coli, Caenorhabditis elegans	[29,30,52,53]
Acoustic vortices and streaming forces to trap objects	IDTs of different shape and configuration on LiNbO3, PDMS channels or Petri dishes	Microparticles, microbubbles, exosomes	[53,54]
Acoustic tweezers to move objects along defined trajectories	IDTs of different shape and configuration on LiNbO3, PDMS channels or Petri dishes	Microparticles, breast cancer cells, zebrafish embryos	[[55], [56], [57], [58]]
Manipulation in 2D and assembly of multiple objects
Concept	Device	Particle/cell type	References
Spheroid formation and cell aggregation	Mainly IDTs on LiNbO3, PDMS channels or Petri dishes ZnO/Si piezoelements	Microparticles, yeast cells, tumor spheroids, neurospheroids	[33,[62], [63], [64], [65],69]
Spatial positioning of cells and co-culture systems	Mainly IDTs on LiNbO3, PDMS channels	HMVEC-d, HeLa, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, Schwann cells, DRG	[[66], [67], [68]]
Cell patterning within hydrogels	Mainly IDTs on LiNbO3, PDMS channels or open-top chambers	hASC, PC12, HUVEC, hMSC, NRVC, iPSC-CM, C2C12, neuroprogenitor cells	[27,28,31,45,48,[70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75]]
Assembly in 2.5D or 3D and acoustic patterning of building blocks
Concept	Particle/cell type	Outcome	References
Spheroid assembly into engineered constructs	HUVEC and hMSC	Perfusable microvasculature	[45]
Multicellular assembly into 3D structures	Fibroblasts, HUVEC, hepatocytes	Liver organoids; cellu-robots	[80,81]
In situ cell–polymer biograft assembly	HeLa, MC3T3-E1, P12	Macroscopic fibers/building blocks for tissue engineering	[32]
Short-term acoustic manipulation—effect after seconds
Concept	Particles/cells	Outcome	References
Cell seeding with acoustic waves	Primary osteoblast-like cells, yeast cells	Fast, homogeneous cell seeding	[82,83]
Acoustic stimulation of cells	Cortical neurons	Altered excitability and action potential	[84]
Acoustic waves for laboratory practice	Cryopreservation of hUCM-MSCs	Increased viability	[85]
Midterm acoustic manipulation—from seconds to minutes to trap and sort objects
Concept	Device/strategy	Particles/cells	References
Object trapping and sorting	Acoustofluidics, mainly PDMS microchannels assembled on IDTs and LiNbO3	Microparticles, nanoparticles, spheroids	[37,86,87,90]
Acoustofluidics for diagnostics	Mainly PDMS microchannels assembled on IDTs and LiNbO3	Red blood cells, lymphocytes, circulating tumor cells	[88,89,91]
Biomaterial design by acoustic waves/Chemical reactions	Topographical structuring of polymer precursors or extracellular matrix proteins	PEGDA or PDMS beads, O2 and CO2 as reactive agents, collagen, fibrinogen	[[92], [93], [94], [95], [96], [97]]
Long-term acoustic manipulation—the effect of sound waves on cell fate
Concept	Particles/cells	Outcome	References
Cell viability after prolonged acoustic stimulation	HeLa, human B cells	Confirmed cell viability	[99,100]
Cell differentiation under acoustic stimulation	hASC	Chondrogenesis, osteogenesis	[[101], [102], [103]]
Effect of acoustic waves on microorganisms	Escherichia coli; Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Biofilm formation; susceptibility to antibiotics	[34,110]

Abbreviations: hUCM-MSC: human umbilical cord matrix mesenchymal stem cells; PDMS: polydimethylsiloxan; IDT: interdigital transducers; PEGDA: poly(ethylene glycol)di-acryloyl; HeLa: Henriette Lacks cervical cancer cell line; hASC: human adipose tissue-derived stem cells; hMSC: human mesenchymal stem cells; HMVEC-d: human dermal vascular endothelial cells; DRG: dorsal route ganglion (neurons); PC12: cell line of neuroblasts and eosinophilic cells; HUVEC: human umbilical vein endothelial cells; NRVC: neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes; iPSC-CM: induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes; C2C12: murine skeletal myoblasts.