Table 1.

Example drugs that modulate autophagy in vivo.

Drug	Mode of action	Reference
Inducers
Rapamycin	Inhibits mTOR pathway	[15,71–73]
Torin1	Inhibits mTOR pathway	[74,75]
PP242	Inhibits mTOR pathway	[76]
Curcumin	Activates Transcription factor EB; Inhibits mTOR pathway; Activates ERK1/2 pathway	[77,78]
Metformin	Activates Sirtuin-1	[79]
Resveratrol	Activates Sirtuin-1	[80]
Trehalose	Inhibits SLC2a family of glucose transporters; Activates AMPK	[81]
Spermidine	Regulates acetylation and deacetylation of cellular proteins	[82,83]
Lithium	Reduces inositol triphosphate levels	[84,85]
Carbamazepine	Reduces inositol triphosphate levels	[86,87]
Valproic acid	Reduces inositol triphosphate levels	[88]
Inhibitors
Chloroquine	Impairs lysosomal acidification	[10,73,89]
Lys05	Impairs lysosomal acidification	[90]
Wortmannin	Inhibits phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases	[91]
Bafilomycin A1	Inhibits V-ATPase; Inhibits autophagosome-lysosome fusion	[19,92,93]
Spautin-1	Inhibits USP10 and USP13, which regulate deubiquitination of Beclin-1	[94,95]
DBeQ	Inhibits p97/VCP	[96]