Table 2.
Birth outcomes and child and family characteristics before multiple imputation by external violence exposure quintile, and the association between the pooled violent crimes quintiles and birth outcomes and child and family characteristics.
| Violent crimes quintile Number of occurrences |
1st quintile Low: 0–1 |
2nd quintile Lower-meddle: 2 |
3rd quintile Middle: 3 |
4th quintile Higher-middle: 4–7 |
5th quintile High: 8–37 |
OR* (95%CI) | p | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
| SGA (N = 5080) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 116 | 6.7 | 78 | 9 | 36 | 7.9 | 81 | 7.4 | 87 | 9.5 | 1.06 (1.00–1.14) | 0.062 |
| PT (N = 5268) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 116 | 6.5 | 68 | 7.5 | 30 | 6.4 | 94 | 8.3 | 61 | 6.3 | 1.02 (0.95–1.09) | 0.594 |
| LBW (N = 5268) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 96 | 5.4 | 66 | 7.3 | 33 | 7.0 | 88 | 7.7 | 72 | 7.5 | 1.09 (1.02–1.17) | 0.014 |
| Fetal sex (N = 5268) | ||||||||||||
| Female | 898 | 50.2 | 449 | 49.5 | 246 | 52.1 | 589 | 51.8 | 469 | 48.7 | 1.00 (0.96–1.03) | 0.937 |
| Maternal age (N = 5268) | ||||||||||||
| < 20 years | 381 | 21.3 | 236 | 26.0 | 93 | 19.7 | 274 | 24.1 | 239 | 24.8 | 1.03 (0.99–1.07) | 0.157 |
| 20–35 years | 1191 | 66.6 | 561 | 61.9 | 327 | 69.5 | 745 | 65.5 | 626 | 64.9 | Ref. | |
| > 35 years | 216 | 12.1 | 110 | 12.1 | 52 | 11.0 | 118 | 10.4 | 99 | 10.3 | 0.96 (0.90–1.01) | 0.125 |
| Skin color (N = 5267) | ||||||||||||
| White | 1080 | 60.4 | 575 | 63.4 | 286 | 60.7 | 690 | 60.7 | 593 | 61.5 | Ref. | |
| Non-white | 707 | 39.6 | 332 | 36.6 | 186 | 39.4 | 447 | 39.3 | 371 | 38.5 | 1.00 (0.96–1.03) | 0.888 |
| SES status (N = 2709) | ||||||||||||
| Low | 144 | 16.0 | 92 | 19.0 | 45 | 18.0 | 135 | 23.7 | 128 | 24.6 | 1.08 (1.00–1.16) | 0.045 |
| Lower-middle | 225 | 25.1 | 126 | 26.0 | 66 | 27.9 | 150 | 26.4 | 156 | 30.0 | Ref. | |
| Middle | 126 | 14.0 | 84 | 17.3 | 40 | 16.9 | 91 | 16.0 | 79 | 15.2 | 0.98 (0.91–1.06) | 0.605 |
| Upper-middle | 213 | 23.7 | 105 | 21.7 | 48 | 20.3 | 79 | 15.2 | 104 | 20.0 | 0.91 (0.85–0.98) | 0.013 |
| High | 190 | 21.2 | 78 | 16.1 | 38 | 16.0 | 104 | 20.0 | 53 | 10.2 | 0.83 (0.80–0.89) | < 0.001 |
| Education (N = 3256) | ||||||||||||
| Incomplete primary | 154 | 13.2 | 90 | 16.2 | 44 | 15.8 | 101 | 14.9 | 109 | 18.9 | 1.07 (1.01–1.14) | 0.026 |
| Complete secondary | 934 | 80.0 | 439 | 79.1 | 216 | 77.7 | 551 | 81.0 | 452 | 78.5 | Ref. | |
| Tertiary | 79 | 6.8 | 26 | 4.7 | 18 | 6.5 | 28 | 4.1 | 15 | 2.6 | 0.83 (0.13–0.19) | < 0.001 |
| Diabetes (N = 3246) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 36 | 3.1 | 16 | 2.9 | 6 | 2.2 | 17 | 2.5 | 16 | 2.8 | 0.95 (0.83–1.09) | 0.500 |
| Hypertension (N = 3249) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 130 | 11.2 | 40 | 7.2 | 21 | 7.6 | 65 | 9.6 | 51 | 8.9 | 0.95 (0.88–1.03) | 0.189 |
| Smoke in pregnancy (N = 3240) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 161 | 14.0 | 86 | 15.2 | 37 | 13.3 | 90 | 13.22 | 83 | 14.4 | 0.99 (0.93–1.06) | 0.802 |
| Drink in pregnancy (N = 3245) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 161 | 13.9 | 75 | 13.5 | 40 | 14.4 | 79 | 11.6 | 66 | 11.4 | 0.94 (0.88–1.01) | 0.079 |
| Depression (N = 3251) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 34 | 2.9 | 13 | 2.3 | 3 | 1.1 | 23 | 3.4 | 9 | 1.6 | 0.93 (0.81–1.07) | 0.329 |
| Physical violence (N = 3236) | ||||||||||||
| Yes | 27 | 2.3 | 14 | 2.5 | 4 | 1.5 | 6 | 0.9 | 7 | 1.2 | 0.79 (0.66–0.95) | 0.013 |
Quintiles categorized violent crimes within a 1-km from participants’ home address; OR: odds ratio; 95% CI: 95% confidence interval; SGA: small for gestational age; PT preterm; LBW: low birth weight; SES: socioeconomic status. * For the variables: Maternal age, SES status and Education, the values represent relative risk-ratios (RRR)