Table 1.

Aberrant expression patterns of various long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) involved in glioblastoma

LncRNAs	Expression pattern	Mechanism	Aberrant phenotype	References
HOTAIR	↑	interacts with the PRC2 complex	promotes cell cycle progression	22, 23, 24
		HOTAIR/miR-326/FGF1 axis	promotes malignancy
		enhances the tight junction by binding to miR-148b-3p as a ceRNA	decreases the blood-tumor barrier (BTB) permeability
HOTAIRMI	↑	acts as sponge for miR-129-5p and miR-493-3p	functions as ceRNA and promotes cell invasion and migration	25,26
			associated with inflammation and T cell-mediated immune response initiation
TUNAR	↑	positive regulator of neuronal development	involved in cancer progression, cell cycle conduct, and pluripotency	27
LincROR		acts as a tumor suppressor	promotes proliferation and enhances glioma stem cell forming ability	28
		negatively correlated with KLF4
H19	↑	by reducing the miR-29a, it upregulates the VASH2 expression	promotes invasion and angiogenesis, along with tube formation	29
		derives the miR-675, which in turn suppresses CDK6 directly	promotes proliferation and migration
CRNDE	↑	modulates the mTOR signaling pathway	promotes growth and invasion	30, 31, 32
		attenuates the axis of miR-384/PIWIL4 /STAT3	facilitates proliferation and invasion and inhibits apoptosis
		protects Bcl-2 and Wnt2 by binding to miR-136-5p as a ceRNA	glioma cells migration and the capacity to invade are enhanced
XIST	↑	expression of ZO-2 and FOXC1 transcription factor as a miR-137 sponge are improved	decreases blood-tumor barrier permeability	33, 34, 35
		forms silencing complex RISC with miR-152 induced by RNA	promotes angiogenesis, GSC proliferation, migration, and invasive capacities
NEAT1	↑	mediates H3K27me3 in target promoters by binding to EZH2	promotes growth and capacity to invade	36
TUG1	↑↓	inhibits miR-144, which in turn reverses the effect of miR-144 on occludin, ZO-1, and claudin-5	regulates blood-tumor barrier permeability	37,38
		recruits polycomb to methylate locus-specific H3K27 histone	maintains stemness features of GSCs
MALAT1	↓↑	negatively regulates miR-155	suppresses invasion and proliferation	39, 40, 41
		targets miR-203	involved in chemoresistance
		targets miR-140; interacts with nuclear factor YA	proliferation, blood-tumor barrier permeability, and chemosensitivity
		targets miR-101	induces proliferation, migration, autophagy, apoptosis, and correlates with survival
GAS5	↓	the positive feedback loop of GAS5/miR-196a-5p/FOXO1 is formed	inhibits proliferation, migration, and invasion	42
CASC2	↓	PTEN expression increases due to interaction with miR-181a	inhibit proliferations and increases TMZ sensitivity	43
NBAT-1	↓	reduces the expression of the NRSF/REST neuronal-specific transcription factor	weakens proliferation, and neuroblastoma differentiation is increased	44
FOXM1-AS	↑	the smooth interaction of ALKBH5 and FOXM1 mRNA to demethylate FOXM1 mRNA	enhances reclamation and tumorigenesis of glioma stem-like cells	45
ECONEXIN	–	rise in TOP2A by wiping miR-411-5p	continues aggressive proliferation of glioma cells	46
SOX2OT	–	binds to miR-194-5p and miR-122, back-pedals SOX3 expression	boosts proliferation, migration, and invasion	47
HCP5	–	forms a positive feedback loop of HCP5-miR-139-RUNX1	causes proliferation, migration, and invasion	48
MEG3	↓	acts in a p53-dependent manner; ceRNAs for miR-19a and miR-93	inhibits glioma cell proliferation (in vitro)	49,50
UCA1	↑	ceRNAs for miR-182 and miR-122	promotes proliferation, invasion, and migration; modulates glycolysis and invasion of glioma	51
HOTTIP	↓	interacts via BRE, cycA and CDK2, p53	promotes proliferation and apoptosis	52
HULC	↑	interacts with survivin, c-Myc, cyclin A/D1/E, p-Rb, Skp-1/2, CDK2/4 and EZH2, Bcl-2/Bax, caspase-3/8	promotes proliferation invasion, migration, and angiogenesis	53
MDC1-AS	↓	upregulates antisense tumor-suppressing gene MDC1	tumor suppressor; inhibits cell proliferation and cell cycle	54
TSLC1-AS1	↓	_	inhibits cell proliferation, migration, and invasion	55
ADAMTS9-AS2	↓	modulates the protein-coding gene ADAMTS9	suppresses cell migration	56
ZEB1-ASI	↑	_	facilitates cell proliferation, migration, and invasion	57
TUSC 7	↓	suppresses the levels of IC50, TMZ, and MDR1 expression and escalates TMZ cytotoxicity in U87TR cells	inhibits TMZ resistance and tumor malignancy	58
LOC441204	↑	involved with the β-catenin/p21/cdk4 cascade	associated with cell proliferation and growth	59
ANRIL	↑	associated with the expression of CBX7 (chromo box homolog 7)	cell proliferation and migration	60

↑, upregulation; ↓, downregulation.