Fig. 4.
A) Milwaukee County HOLC residential security map obtained from the University of Richmond's Mapping Inequality. B) Milwaukee County historic redlining score (n = 157) calculated for 2010 Milwaukee County census tracts from the proportion of Home Owners' Loan Corporation residential security grades contained within current census tract boundaries. Continuous scores ranged from 0 to 4, with higher scores corresponding to more ‘redlining’. Census tracts with more than 50% of the area not assigned a HOLC grade were excluded. Quartile classification was utilized based on the geographic distribution of the data at the census tract level. C) Milwaukee County lending trajectory (n = 157). Census tract historic redlining score was dichotomized at the 25th percentile and combined with the binary lending discrimination variable (data obtained from 2018 Home Mortgage Disclosure Act Data) to create a 4-level categorical lending trajectory: tracts with low historic redlining and no current lending discrimination (high investment), high historic redlining and no current lending discrimination (growing investment), low historic redlining and current lending discrimination (disinvested), and high historic redlining and current lending discrimination (sustained disinvestment). Of the 157 Milwaukee County census tracts, 123 tracts reside within the City of Milwaukee boundaries. Service layer credits to Esri, HERE, Garmin, (c) OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS user community.