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. 2021 May 6;53(5):750–760. doi: 10.1038/s12276-021-00592-0

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — The viral RNA genome and replication intermediates of SARS-CoV-2 can be sensed by Toll-like receptors (TLR3 and TLR7) and cytosolic RNA sensors (RIG-I and MDA-5). RNA-bound receptors induce the activation of the transcription factors NFκB and IRF3/IRF7 via the TRAF6/IKKα/β/γ and TRAF3-TBK1/IKKε pathways, respectively, and promote the expression of type I and type III interferons (IFNs).