Figure 1.

Summary of the origin and role of osteoblast-like cells and osteoclast-like-cells in vascular calcification. Vascular calcification is common in older adults, patients with chronic kidney disease, diabetes, and atherosclerosis. During the formation of vascular calcification, many cells differentiated into osteoblast-like cells or chondrocytes-like cells, including VSMCs, ECs, fibroblasts, pericytes, MSCs and progenitors. They express osteoblastic differentiation transcription factors and bone matrix proteins as well as secrete exosomes and matrix vesicles contributing to the development and progression of vascular calcification. Some cells can also differentiate into osteoclast—like cells, including some MSCs or progenitors, macrophages. They play a role in demineralization of the vascular calcification. The reduction of osteogenic phenotype cells and the increase of mineral reabsorption cells may be a strategy for vascular calcification cell therapy. VSMCs, vascular smooth muscle cells; ECs, endothelial cells; MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; MV, matrix vesicles; RUNX2, RUNX family transcription factor 2; MSX, msh homeobox; SOX9, SRY-related high mobility group-box gene9; OSX, Sp7 transcription factor; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; OC, osteocalcin; BSP, bone sialoprotein; OPN, osteopontin; TRAP, acid phosphatase 5, tartrate resistant; CA2, carbonic anhydrase 2.