Table 4.

Biomaterials from marine organisms applied in tissue engineering.

Biomaterials	Marine Sources	Tested cell types	Cell viability or improved properties	Application	Advantages(A) and disadvantage (DA)	Refs
Gelatin methacryloyl	Cold water fish	NIH3T3 cells	90%	Tissue engineering and drug delivery	A: High degradation rate, appropriate melting and gelling points (~37 °C) DA: low compressive moduli	[332]
Collagen	Salmon skin	Mesenchymal stem cells	Improved proliferative and differential ability of mesenchymal stem cells	Bone tissue engineering	A: Excellent mechanical properties, increased degradation rate and the compressive strength	[333]
	Shark skin (Prionace glauca)	Osteoblast-like cell	Majority of the cells are viable	Bone tissue engineering	A: Bioactive stable composite structures, feasibility, low cost	[299]
	Fish	T-Lymphocyte leukemia cell lines and osteoblast	Decreased (T-cells), Improved osteogenic ability (osteoblast)	Bone tissue engineering	A: Biocompatibility, high stiffness, low biodegradation rate, and osteogenesis ability	[334]
	Sea urchin	Fibroblast	Increased proliferation rate	Tissue regenerative medicine	A: Biocompatiblity, mechanically stable in wet conditions, resemblance the dermal layer in structure and function.	[334]
Alginate	Brown sea algae	Mesenchymal stem cells	Increased cell number	Bone tissue engineering	A: Excellent mechanical properties, suitability for cell attachment and spread	[335]
		Human osteoblasts	Improved osteoblasts proliferation	Bone tissue engineering, drug delivery	A: Suitable physical performance, bioactivity	[336]
Chitin	Demosponge Ianthella basta	Mesenchymal stromal cells	High percentage of viability, improved differential ability	Tissue engineering and regeneration, such as artificial skin	A: Ability to improve adipogenic differentiation of cells, simplicity of the isolation, interconnected porosity and excellent biocompatibility	[337]
	Demosponge Aplysina aerophoba	Human mesenchymal stromal cells	Increased metabolic activity, cell numbers, and differential ability	Tissue engineering	A: Excellent cytocompatibility	[338]
Collagen-chitosan-fucoidan cryogels	Jellyfish (collagen), brown algae(fucoidan), giant squid(chitosan)	L929 cells	70%	Tissue engineering	A: Mechanical stability, adequate porosity for cell proliferation	[339]