Table 6.
Marine skeletons and other hard tissue applied in tissue engineering.
| Marine skeletons | Effective constituents | Porosity and pore size | Properties | Application | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shark teeth | Apatitic (hydroxyapatite and apatite-(CaF)), non-apatitic (whitlockite), and an apatitic phase (fluorapatite), | Pore size: ~50 μm and ~0.5–1 μm) | Enrichments of specific trace elements (Mg, F); Improved proliferation and osteogenic activity of cells |
Bone tissue regeneration | [352] |
| Mussels and oysters | Calcium carbonate | Particle size: 1.5 μm | Enhanced ECM mineralization and osteoblastic differentiation of MSC | Bone tissue regeneration | [353] |
| Coral | Hydroxyapatite | Porosity: 70–75% | Excellent osseous tissue formation, carrier for growth factors | Tissue regeneration | [354] |
| Acropora coral | Pores size: 412 ± 212 μm, porosity: 12 ± 4% | Interconnected large pores | Tissue regeneration | [355] | |
| Cuttlebone | Porosity: 90.4 ± 3.5% | Interconnective porous structure; High protein adsorption rate; promotes osteogenic differentiation of MSC |
Bone tissue regeneration | [356] | |
| Cuttlebone | Biphasic Calcium Phosphate | N/A | Excellent degradability and bioactivity | Bone tissue engineering | [357] |
| Marine sponge Aplysin aarcheri | Chitinous scaffolds | N/A | 3D chitinous scaffold for calcium carbonate deposition | Developed mineralized scaffolds | [358] |
| Coral microparticles | Calcium carbonate | Porosity: 99.05% | Enhanced compressive properties; promotes more robust osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells, | Bone regeneration. | [359] |
| Deep-sea bamboo coral | Calcareous structures alternated with smaller proteinaceous nodes of gorgonin | N/A | Excellent potential for colonization with human osteoblasts and osteoclasts | Tissue regeneration | [360] |