Table 1.

Strategies for nanoparticle-based cancer immunotherapies (NCBIs) to modulate immune responses.

Target cell	NPs platform	Immunotherapeutic agent	Function	Ref.
DCs	Ionizable lipid-like materials	mRNA or antigens	Efficient mRNA delivery and STING activation	58
	pH-sensitive polymers	Antigens	Efficient antigen cytosolic delivery and STING activation	59
	Albumin-binding lipids	CpG or peptide	Enhanced lymph node delivery and T Cell activation	60
	Polymers	Antigens and adjuvants	Robust humoral and cellular immunity	61
	Mesoporous silica rod absorbing PEI	CpG, antigens and GM-CSF	Promote dendritic cell activation and antigen specific T cell responses	62
T cells	Nanoscale polymeric gels	TGF-β inhibitor and IL-2	Facilitate the CD8+ T-cell infiltration into tumors	68
	PLGA/PEG-based NPs	TGFβR1 inhibitor and TLR7/TLR8 agonist	Improve the viability of endogenous T cells and its antitumor efficiency	69
	liposomes and liposome-like synthetic NPs	Adjuvant drugs	Boosted the viability and proliferation of T cells	70
	Reactive oxygen species–responsive scaffold	Gemcitabine and checkpoint inhibitor	Improve the activity of CD8+ T cells for efficient cancer eradication	73
	Gold NPs	Checkpoint inhibitors	Enhanced antitumor effect and rapid prediction of therapeutic response	74
Other immune cells	Bisphosphonate-glucomannan conjugate	Bisphosphonate and glucomannan	Efficiently reduced the percentage of TAMs	80
	Ferumoxytol	Ferumoxytol	Inhibit tumor growth by converting M2-like TAM into M1-like TAM	82
	Graphene oxide-based nanoscale clusters	Antibodies	Significantly stimulate NK cells activity	85
	Phosphonate capped dendrimers	Phosphonate capped dendrimers	Efficient proliferation of human NK cells	86
	Lipid NPs	Lauroyl-modified gemcitabine	Reduce the percentage of MDSCs in the spleen and tumor	87
	Heparin-tocopherol succinate nanoparticle	Heparin-tocopherol Succinate nanoparticle	Inhibit the recruitment of MDSCs and expression of MMP-9 in MDSCs	88

DCs, dendritic cells; GM-CSF, granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor; MDSCs, myeloid-derived suppressor cells; MMP-9, matrix metalloprotein 9; mRNA, messenger RNA; NK cells, natural killer cells; NPs, nanoparticles; PEI, polyethylenimine; TAM, tumor-associated macrophages; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; TGFβR1, transforming growth factor beta-receptor 1; TLR7/TLR8, toll-like receptor 7/8.