TABLE 1.
Baseline characteristics according to quintiles of breakfast energy intake
| Breakfast energy intake, % | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quintile 1, <20.7, n = 587 | Quintile 2, 20.7–24.2, n = 587 | Quintile 3, 24.3–27.3, n = 587 | Quintile 4, 27.4–31.2, n = 587 | Quintile 5, >31.2, n = 587 | P value1 | |
| Age, y | 61.58 ± 6.392 | 61.82 ± 6.53 | 62.38 ± 7.04 | 61.73 ± 6.37 | 61.66 ± 6.45 | 0.9287 |
| Gender | — | — | — | — | — | 0.9168 |
| Men | 296 (50.4)3 | 265 (45.1) | 301 (51.3) | 269 (45.8) | 296 (50.4) | |
| Women | 291 (49.6) | 322 (54.9) | 286 (48.7) | 318 (54.2) | 291 (49.6) | |
| Education | — | — | — | — | — | 0.7571 |
| Low, 0 y | 290 (49.4) | 242 (41.2) | 256 (43.6) | 273 (46.5) | 250 (42.6) | |
| Moderate, 1–12 y | 244 (41.6) | 269 (45.8) | 272 (46.4) | 252 (42.9) | 276 (47.0) | |
| High, ≥13 y | 37 (6.3) | 56 (9.6) | 46 (7.9) | 45 (7.6) | 32 (5.5) | |
| Missing | 16 (2.7) | 20 (3.4) | 13 (2.2) | 17 (2.9) | 29 (4.9) | |
| Living area | — | — | — | — | — | <0.0001 |
| Urban | 221 (37.6) | 278 (47.4) | 249 (42.4) | 211 (35.9) | 115 (19.6) | |
| Rural | 366 (62.4) | 309 (52.6) | 338 (57.6) | 376 (64.1) | 472 (80.4) | |
| Smoking | — | — | — | — | — | 0.7993 |
| Never | 368 (62.7) | 409 (69.7) | 394 (67.1) | 420 (71.6) | 364 (62.0) | |
| Former | 27 (4.6) | 23 (3.9) | 21 (3.6) | 10 (1.7) | 15 (2.6) | |
| Current | 192 (32.7) | 155 (26.4) | 172 (29.3) | 157 (26.7) | 208 (35.4) | |
| Alcohol intake | — | — | — | — | — | 0.3041 |
| None | 381 (64.9) | 403 (68.7) | 381 (64.9) | 406 (69.2) | 398 (67.8) | |
| Yes | 206 (35.1) | 184 (31.3) | 206 (35.1) | 181 (30.8) | 189 (32.2) | |
| Global cognitive score, z-score | 0.09 ± 1.17 | −0.14 ± 1.15 | −0.08 ± 1.12 | −0.10 ± 1.19 | 0.00 ± 1.11 | 0.3302 |
| Verbal memory score, z-score | −0.03 ± 0.90 | 0.17 ± 0.88 | 0.08 ± 0.85 | 0.20 ± 0.86 | 0.05 ± 0.84 | 0.0748 |
| Memory recall–delayed score, z-score | −0.22 ± 1.00 | 0.00 ± 0.98 | −0.06 ± 0.95 | 0.06 ± 0.96 | −0.12 ± 0.96 | 0.0581 |
| Follow-up period, y | 9.3 ± 4.8 | 8.8 ± 4.9 | 8.9 ± 4.8 | 9.0 ± 4.9 | 8.3 ± 4.7 | 0.0025 |
| Physical activity, MET-h/wk | 191.66 ± 117.78 | 176.57 ± 116.14 | 182.91 ± 114.92 | 190.24 ± 120.25 | 213.38 ± 123.17 | 0.0002 |
| Occupational activity | — | — | — | — | — | 0.0005 |
| Very light | 84 (14.3) | 119 (20.3) | 102 (17.4) | 109 (18.6) | 70 (11.9) | |
| Light | 126 (21.5) | 122 (20.8) | 119 (20.3) | 104 (17.7) | 87 (14.8) | |
| Moderate | 141 (24.0) | 140 (23.9) | 164 (27.9) | 139 (23.7) | 131 (22.3) | |
| Heavy | 173 (29.5) | 140 (23.9) | 144 (24.5) | 179 (30.5) | 237 (40.4) | |
| Very heavy | 3 (0.5) | 4 (0.7) | 1 (0.2) | 1 (0.2) | 2 (0.3) | |
| No working ability | 40 (6.8) | 41 (7.0) | 40 (6.8) | 34 (5.8) | 35 (6.0) | |
| Missing | 20 (3.4) | 21 (3.6) | 17 (2.9) | 21 (3.6) | 25 (4.3) | |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 22.7 ± 3.4 | 23.1 ± 3.5 | 22.7 ± 3.6 | 23.4 ± 3.6 | 23.2 ± 3.7 | 0.0024 |
| Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg | 80.4 ± 11.3 | 80.6 ± 11.6 | 80.5 ± 10.9 | 82.0 ± 11.8 | 82.2 ± 12.3 | 0.0008 |
| Systolic blood pressure, mmHg | 126.6 ± 19.8 | 128.59 ± 19.1 | 128.9 ± 18.9 | 129.48 ± 19.5 | 131.0 ± 20.4 | 0.0002 |
| Dietary intake | ||||||
| Total energy, kcal/d | 1975.1 ± 612.5 | 1908.1 ± 573.1 | 2005.6 ± 634.1 | 2114.8 ± 719.8 | 2166.6 ± 805.6 | <0.0001 |
| Fiber, g/d | 26.65 ± 23.39 | 27.66 ± 25.06 | 30.23 ± 28.65 | 23.79 ± 23.41 | 20.67 ± 21.30 | <0.0001 |
| Sodium, mg/d | 7350.9 ± 4987.8 | 7165.13 ± 4293.5 | 7499.4 ± 4647.9 | 7249.6 ± 4460.4 | 7466.6 ± 4907.3 | 0.6043 |
| Potassium, mg/d | 2289.8 ± 1655.3 | 2153.9 ± 1637.1 | 2471.6 ± 2133.56 | 2219.6 ± 1629.6 | 2034.1 ± 1514.4 | 0.0486 |
| Protein,4 % energy/d | 14.20 ± 3.37 | 14.52 ± 3.16 | 14.59 ± 3.28 | 14.02 ± 3.07 | 13.55 ± 2.66 | <0.0001 |
| Fat, % energy/d | 16.90 ± 10.47 | 18.09 ± 9.53 | 17.26 ± 9.13 | 14.47 ± 9.11 | 12.15 ± 9.05 | <0.0001 |
| Carbohydrate, % energy/d | 67.82 ± 13.40 | 66.72 ± 11.80 | 67.92 ± 11.26 | 71.52 ± 11.61 | 74.89 ± 11.06 | <0.0001 |
| Protein at breakfast, % breakfast energy | 12.52 ± 2.68 | 12.61 ± 2.19 | 12.91 ± 2.39 | 13.06 ± 2.07 | 12.91 ± 1.88 | <0.0001 |
| Fat at breakfast, % breakfast energy | 9.64 ± 7.73 | 11.13 ± 7.61 | 12.10 ± 7.35 | 12.50 ± 8.01 | 11.95 ± 7.57 | <0.0001 |
| Carbohydrate at breakfast, % breakfast energy | 77.84 ± 9.61 | 76.27 ± 9.16 | 74.99 ± 8.94 | 74.44 ± 9.35 | 75.14 ± 8.63 | <0.0001 |
| Grains, g/2000 kcal | 474.32 ± 153.17 | 497.64 ± 144.13 | 497.66 ± 125.39 | 500.07 ± 120.78 | 502.95 ± 114.70 | <0.0001 |
| Vegetables, g/2000 kcal | 291.18 ± 182.74 | 285.32 ± 173.81 | 276.54 ± 172.84 | 253.15 ± 184.68 | 231.81 ± 218.87 | <0.0001 |
| Fruit, g/2000 kcal | 11.95 ± 61.98 | 15.22 ± 70.67 | 8.36 ± 44.48 | 10.91 ± 48.12 | 6.49 ± 34.26 | 0.0292 |
| Red meat, g/2000 kcal | 70.32 ± 67.50 | 73.27 ± 65.31 | 59.57 ± 60.71 | 47.20 ± 65.42 | 30.52 ± 49.72 | <0.0001 |
| Processed meat, g/2000 kcal | 40.02 ± 56.70 | 37.93 ± 50.90 | 34.04 ± 50.29 | 24.63 ± 52.44 | 13.04 ± 35.51 | <0.0001 |
| Fish, g/2000 kcal | 14.57 ± 44.75 | 14.11 ± 41.98 | 17.61 ± 60.19 | 11.56 ± 35.55 | 12.88 ± 45.18 | 0.3268 |
| Poultry, g/2000 kcal | 6.60 ± 25.17 | 5.34 ± 20.93 | 4.50 ± 18.78 | 5.18 ± 22.12 | 3.32 ± 19.05 | 0.0160 |
Abbreviation: MET, metabolic equivalent of task.
1
An ANOVA was used to test the differences in continuous variables across quintiles of breakfast energy intake and a chi-square test was used for categorical variables.
2
All such data were means ± SDs.
3
All such data were frequencies (%).
4
Refers to % energy of total daily intake, while those for macronutrients at breakfast refer to % breakfast energy intake.