TABLE 2.
The change in global cognitive score associated with energy and macronutrient intakes at breakfast
| Consumption level | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quintile 1 | Quintile 2 | Quintile 3 | Quintile 4 | Quintile 5 | P-trend | 5% energy increment | |
| Breakfast energy intake | |||||||
| Range, % total daily energy | <20.7 | 20.7−24.2 | 24.3–27.3 | 27.4–31.2 | >31.2 | — | |
| Participants | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | — | |
| Cognitive score at baseline | 0.02 ± 0.05 | 0.10 ± 0.04 | 0.13 ± 0.04 | 0.14 ± 0.04 | 0.09 ± 0.05 | 0.1893 | 0.01 (−0.02 to 0.03) |
| Change in cognitive score | −0.01 ± 0.06 | 0.01 ± 0.06 | 0.05 ± 0.05 | 0.02 ± 0.05 | −0.01 ± 0.06 | 0.8752 | — |
| β (95% CI), Model 11 | 0 | 0.02 (−0.09 to 0.12) | 0.06 (−0.05 to 0.17) | 0.03 (−0.08 to 0.15) | −0.00 (−0.13 to 0.12) | 0.8752 | −0.00 (−0.03 to 0.02) |
| β (95% CI), Model 22 | 0 | 0.01 (−0.10 to 0.11) | 0.04 (−0.07 to 0.15) | 0.03 (−0.09 to 0.14) | 0.01 (−0.12 to 0.13) | 0.8027 | −0.01 (−0.03 to 0.02) |
| β (95% CI), Model 33 | 0 | 0.00 (−0.10 to 0.11) | 0.03 (−0.08 to 0.14) | 0.00 (−0.12 to 0.12) | −0.05 (−0.20 to 0.09) | 0.6309 | −0.00 (−0.03 to 0.03) |
| Breakfast protein intake | |||||||
| Range (% breakfast energy) | <10.8 | 10.8–11.7 | 11.8–12.6 | 12.7–14.0 | >14.0 | — | |
| Participants | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | — | |
| Cognitive score at baseline | −0.07 ± 0.05 | 0.06 ± 0.04 | 0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.14 ± 0.04 | 0.21 ± 0.05 | <0.0001 | 0.15 (0.08–0.22) |
| Change in cognitive score | −0.11 ± 0.05 | −0.06 ± 0.04 | −0.13 ± 0.04 | −0.04 ± 0.04 | 0.07 ± 0.05 | 0.0071 | — |
| β (95% CI), Model 1 | 0 | 0.06 (−0.05 to 0.16) | −0.01 (−0.13 to 0.10) | 0.07 (−0.04 to 0.18) | 0.18 (0.06–0.30) | 0.0071 | 0.09 (0.02–0.15) |
| β (95% CI), Model 2 | 0 | 0.05 (−0.06 to 0.15) | −0.03 (−0.14 to 0.08) | 0.05 (−0.06 to 0.16) | 0.13 (0.01–0.25) | 0.0600 | 0.08 (0.01–0.16) |
| β (95% CI), Model 3 | 0 | 0.05 (−0.06 to 0.16) | −0.02 (−0.13 to 0.09) | 0.06 (−0.05 to 0.17) | 0.13 (0.01–0.25) | 0.0544 | 0.08 (0.01–0.16) |
| Breakfast fat intake | |||||||
| Range, % breakfast energy | <4.6 | 4.6–7.3 | 7.4–11.1 | 11.2–17.2 | >17.2 | — | |
| Participants | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | — | |
| Cognitive score at baseline | −0.13 ± 0.04 | 0.08 ± 0.04 | 0.13 ± 0.04 | 0.14 ± 0.04 | 0.28 ± 0.05 | <0.0001 | 0.07 (0.04–0.10) |
| Change in cognitive score | −0.12 ± 0.05 | −0.20 ± 0.04 | −0.10 ± 0.04 | 0.06 ± 0.04 | 0.11 ± 0.05 | <0.0001 | — |
| β (95% CI), Model 1 | 0 | −0.08 (−0.19 to 0.02) | 0.02 (−0.09 to 0.13) | 0.18 (0.07–0.29) | 0.23 (0.10–0.35) | <0.0001 | 0.09 (0.07–0.11) |
| β (95% CI), Model 2 | 0 | −0.08 (−0.19 to 0.02) | 0.00 (−0.11 to 0.11) | 0.14 (0.03–0.25) | 0.17 (0.04–0.29) | 0.0003 | 0.05 (0.03–0.08) |
| β (95% CI), Model 3 | 0 | −0.08 (−0.19 to 0.03) | 0.02 (−0.09 to 0.13) | 0.15 (0.03–0.27) | 0.17 (0.04–0.30) | 0.0003 | 0.06 (0.03–0.09) |
| Breakfast carbohydrates intake | |||||||
| Range, % breakfast energy | <64.6 | 64.6–73.2 | 73.3–78.7 | 78.7–82.8 | >82.8 | — | |
| Participants | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | 587 | — | |
| Cognitive score at baseline | 0.10 ± 0.05 | 0.13 ± 0.04 | 0.09 ± 0.04 | 0.17 ± 0.04 | −0.01 ± 0.05 | 0.1292 | −0.00 (−0.02 to 0.02) |
| Change in cognitive score | −0.03 ± 0.05 | 0.03 ± 0.04 | −0.02 ± 0.04 | −0.16 ± 0.04 | −0.09 ± 0.05 | 0.0382 | — |
| β (95% CI), Model 1 | 0 | 0.06 (−0.05 to 0.17) | 0.01 (−0.10 to 0.13) | −0.13 (−0.24 to −0.01) | −0.06 (−0.18 to 0.07) | 0.0382 | −0.02 (−0.03 to −0.01) |
| β (95% CI), Model 2 | 0 | 0.08 (−0.03 to 0.18) | 0.04 (−0.08 to 0.15) | −0.08 (−0.20 to 0.04) | −0.01 (−0.13 to 0.11) | 0.2094 | −0.00 (−0.02 to 0.01) |
| β (95% CI), Model 3 | 0 | 0.08 (−0.03 to 0.19) | 0.05 (−0.07 to 0.16) | −0.07 (−0.19 to 0.05) | −0.01 (−0.13 to 0.11) | 0.2242 | −0.00 (−0.02 to 0.01) |
General linear regression models were used to obtain coefficients (95% CIs) for the changes in global cognitive scores for Quintiles 2–5 versus Quintile 1 of energy and macronutrient intakes at breakfast. Each 5% energy increment from breakfast energy and macronutrient intakes was associated with the change in the global cognitive score. The change in global cognitive scores was computed as the score at baseline subtracted from that at follow-up.
Model 1 was adjusted for communities in cities or counties as random effects and for age and gender as fixed effects.
Model 2 was adjusted for the variables from Model 1 plus education, urbanicity, years of follow-up, smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, global cognitive score, BMI, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure at baseline as fixed effects.
Model 3 was adjusted for the variables from Model 2 plus intakes of total energy, breakfast energy, fiber, sodium, potassium, grains, vegetables, fruits, red meat, processed meat, fish, and poultry at baseline as fixed effects.